x , gE2 Sn eS ee SS, 2 EL > Sites. 2 > $5 > > D+ DP» > fz! 2 >? >> - WHITNEY LIBRARY, MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. A a O/ é ®) ‘ > Pid }, 4 ‘ ay . 7 ~ lt ae ig , . \ % = a y f . a ‘ «> . “ Eas s 5 i . ¥s ) AMS a Top "TER oe . i THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER: REVIEW OF NATURAL HISTORY, MICROSCOPIC RESEARCH, AND RECREATIVE SCIENCE, VOLUME V., ILLUSTRATED WITH PLATES IN COLOURS AND TINTS, AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. LONDON: GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW. , \amccorxrv. z | wae. ie. ort oo ann, oer ink s CURT? erin. KeIOIOD HT saat ema CO eo Ree Asa, CONTENTS, —_+—_——_. A New Barrise Fonevs. By the Rev. M. J. Berxenzy, M.A., F.LS. WO ONCGOUFED PUREE, Mend sities tadeee ns nidecca tease cdoe nee cescddeteseasrsle tes OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE-SPINED SrickieBack—I7s Ova AND FRY. By J. WH. Horsrann, With an [llustration,.....c0e.cecscscsseees esas dele : THE i een ANACALYPTA AND Portia. By M. G. CaMPBELL............... A WINDFALL FoR THE Microscorr. By the Hon. Mrs. Warp. With a Coloured Plate ........0-. een aeeeeatisciionstieteauisctiecinevinsat sites cemecinnaits 30.00 MINSTRELS OF THE WINTER. By SHIRLEY EERE BRD A a A Sant MaRsHES AND THEIR InHaBrrants. By Guorcz 8. Brapy, M.R.CS. OpricaL GHOSTS ...... ASibrcrcnbey adosndodarsanseon bachiconnoancunpponcnaedounddsobosdoed Meme) RUENS OH) COPAN> ,....cc;ecuersadeaneetans Be iaidelneeaAacharnnh oaetenauarhetene tes RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE Kzw OBSERVATORY. By G. M. WHIPPLE ...........c.csc0e0s npndcapoanooascehacne ; We NEVER SEE THE STARS... .cic5cccceedcesenesevesccns ap uenereatica SOUSEY NEES ; GREEN dion “By Henry SnA0K, BiGiS ie. ee ee I, Crusters AND’ Nesut=. Dovsrs Star. GREAT NEBULA IN Orton. CoMPARISON OF SUN AND Stars. Occunration. By the Rev. T. W. Wirnpy MAL BRAS. (Withee Diagram... 16. Tun Dentition oF Britise Moxzvsca. By the Rev. G. Rows, M.A. WN GULCH EET OG OS IR eRe oea he een seein otha sone etc cicawehertees coats AUTOMATIC WEIGHING OF GOLD AND SILVER PLANCHETS AT THE RoyaL Mint. By JosepH Newton. With an Lllustration............00.sc000s THe EARTHQUAKE AT Mernpoza, 20TH Maron, 1861. By Wintiam BowwaErr. With a Tinted Plate... cecccccccccecscccscccseccessent Socuccaadin 4 THE Mipyieut Sun. By Tomas W. Borer, F.R.AS., F.C.S. oo... A MossEs—GRIMMIA AND Scuistipivm. By M. G. CampBeLn. With an LUSTIG Tee ROT NR date doe Aer Ee ote ee aioe ucdentegeeaeee pooseeande GUNS AND PROJECTILES ....... See ARE Nar eh Mie Maat eae Ameer Marr ABROLITHS WITH Low VELOCKLIES..c...cccccesesssessssesssevastesssessutetcaesentes THE WIND aND ITs Diggction. By H. J. Lows, F.R.A.S., F.L.8S. With LUGUSEROTROW SSS satactseot tar Sree MAMAS ce a ids Adon cag ROR Naas daetono et Constancy oF Soran Ligur anp Hat. By ALEXANDER 8. HERSCHEL, BAA csccbsisneantees Sooner ibeeheagh eababsnaneeeeee tee Guoofaprensedaeeabeed TSANEar AnD Gime RCTS Rea RT Si SBS OAR IY GELS ON Crusters ap Nesune. Dovsie Srars. Occunrations. "By the Rev. TE Wis WEE BB, AMD GAs 5 AUR FANS 2 a cet cen npicranerent on tutee seelelsaeaetoah aeieloetvaeli'e sles Ea@G PARASITES AND THEIR RELATIVES. By the Rev. M. J. BERKELBy, MEAS GSO Waele Pitted, Plate eee ee ee a Puorograpay—Its History, Position, anD Prospects. Part I. By J. CMMs ME CT IGG cai tetolriatanri ae, wsueishseadas AMaelvlcld ok a view oueantdattts cna bec > Ate OzONE AND Ozone Txsts, “By m5. Lowe, Esq. iy ERA S., F.G.S., ete... PorTABLE EQuatorEats. By Wittram C. Borper, F.R. A. (Sb s.utdeweameneee On rae Anorenr Laxe Hasrravions oF SWITZERLAND. By Haney Woopwarb, F.Z.8. With a Tinted Plate ........ccccccececsceeeeeecsececeee VORACITY OF THE ASPLANCHNA, AND ITs StomMacH Currents. By ‘Henry OME, EME ii sactesceaceitvextead PINTS nactidaanisoaot athboeNbrundacn 6 - Tue FounDaTrons OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE .......0cscssceeeees socoérad adoupbtsenege THe Moon. Praners or THE Monto. DovusiE STAR. OCCULTATIONS. By the Rev. T. W. Wzss, M.A., F.R.A.S........c. eens Gacadeneaeanneneste: 3 THe EXTINGUISHER Mosszs. By M. G. CMMEE BRT os mance quad eeaueasetaee . Our ATMOSPHERE AND THE THER OF SPACE ............ Rae tbat seasareuess : Ancaorine Moniusks. By W. NEWTON MACOARTNEY .........cceceeceeeen ee ‘ PAGE. iv Contents. AGE. Tse Natrersack Toap In IrELAND. By the Hon. Mrs. Warp. Witha SOBRE CEMAEE 3. Say onic otes ines taps cesmslv ecLod acwibes cacloe dese see eeeeeee senate 237 PxHoroGRaPuic Processes. By J. W. M‘GAULEY ..............cebecessseeeeens 233 A Cueap OpservaTory. By Freperick Birp. With Tiisivations Sa oe 241 Crcaps. By Joun R. Jackson. With a Tinted Plate...........ccccccccceeee 246 Discovery or Porson Organs IN Fisnes. Communicated by HENRY WVOODWARD, HUZiSs.)cdevacces csabenansiiapnsnmaes vacsecteesamre dese scenes eee 253 Mossts To BE FounD In May—Corp- Mosszs AnD APPLE-Mosszs. By M. Rf ACAMER BEE caw. nipac ces supapsnnsSeneh xsaysdsce tues s Sscegabndanes ttveceesseaeeam 258 Motecurar Mortons 1n Livine Bovres. By Henry J.Sxack, F.G.S8.... 269 THE PHOSPHATES USED IN AGRICULTURE. By Dz. T. L. PHIPSON, F.C.S., DONDBN 4 iis dodleteciebew sie sehen Sedna a Aone 273 Snow Crrstats. By E. J. Lows, Esq., F.R.A. 8. With Illustrations...... 279 RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MaDE aT THE KEW OBSER- Waromy EyiGo WWeRPEE, s2) 5 ott... .cathopnenuies Sake edac. eeaths aeeeee 284 Srar-FoLLowine With TaBiE Stanps. By Rev. E. L. Bertuon, M.A.... 290 Sonar OBSERVATION. TRANSIT OF JUPITER'S SATELLITES. By the Rey. TD. Wid WEBB Sy MEAG, TOR AgGa sata). cdeiten coh aieadeate mancwban 2308s somes 292 Tux CaDDIS-worM AND ITs Houses. By EizabeTH Mary SMEE. With i WAOMHIREE DPLALE Faun dvacith anny setnanvaceeeeen ascesas ancasey yee Sees 307 KEW OBSERVATORY (.....2decsesecesiidsacse chidabecelin: deem okie BunWiaabe dese ednewn deena 318 THE HARTH AS SEEN FROM THE MOON ....ccccccscccecsccevcveccscecevence sessecece O24 BEGENT MICROSCOPIC ITERATURE, .. cxoso0-sssnsmoncnnonanndadsnemaasens «diden decane 328 Exogenous SEEDS AND FERN Spores. By R. Dawson, M.B. Lonpon. Wsthite, Dinted Plirte ie, se neen bs... skin sda sa th ides « amg th eal ae « hee 333 Star Fottowine. By Rey. E. L. Bertnon, M.A. With an Illustration 338 A Surpposep New Acineta. By H. J. Snack, F.G.S. With an Illustration 340 GAUTIER ON THE PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF THE SUN ........ceccccececececes 345 Tue Dipuncuvs, or Lirrte Dopo. By W. B. TEGETMEIER ............... 346 RECREATIONS IN NATURAL HisTORY Sabbheeddies acaladgers tae eee ubinrlek ate cakmeee 351 Bass HGNOLIONS: OF AR Dyes sae vinid Saeod et. Boe eo ao ARR R AION, «aR ln ceed cate 306 NEIGHBOURHOOD OF THE LUNAR Spot, MARE CrIsiuM. JUPITER’S SATEL- LITES. OccuLTations. By the Rev. T. W. Wess, M.A., F.R.A.S... 359 Comets. AN ACCOUNT oF ALL THE COMETS WHOSE ORBITS HAVE NOT BEEN CALCULATED. By G. F. CHAMBERS ...........ccceccececsccececes 218, 373 On THE Herrinc. By W. Newron Maccartney, Cor. Src. G. N.S. ... 368 Tue Natvrat History oF THE HarRy-BACKED ANIMALCULES (CHZTONO- TIDE). By Puinie Henry Gossz, F.R.S. With Two Plates ......... 387 Tue Four-Hornep Trunk Fish: a Native oF En@uanp. By JonaTHAN COUCH, WU) REC, 2 cy oiscoscarnss savas oessaassap cpp bacttess] >? aks ce aaa 407 Tue SrpE-FRurtine Mossxs. By M.G. CampBetu. With an Illustration... 410 TAOS ABOUT LROW S02. 4.5 dees cdvchocstunscesncacaskinaredeatus as tinea ae 419 THE REMARKABLE WEATHER OF THE EARLY SuMMER oF 1864, aT THE Higurizrp Hovsz Oxsrrvatory. By E. J. Lows, Esq, F.R.AS., BO ie oais ti Moves rie tine de cate aatioad cteeaee eer aoe iit odes ame CU eRe scabies 425 MAGNUS ON THE CONDENSATION OF VAPOURS........csessecscsceecsccceceeecence — 432 Sorar OxssErvaTion. CoLours or Srars, CoNsTITUTION OF NEBUL®. TRANSITS OF JUPITER'S SaTELLITES. By the Rey. T. W. Wess, Bis VE GH EUG ARDS! oy ale Sethe dpee tau tccut iia ten cat ebad hasee rs Sce A434 Tur RomsEy OBSERVATORY. By the Rey. E. L. Bertuon. With Tilus- ER CEONE. 15 cbs aids itd’ ths Gas DANS WEKEE CHAK Ol w Te Ald USE td ERs WaT EE a 445 On THE OnrcIn oF THE LIGHT OF THE SUN AND STAns. By BaLrour Stewart, MLA., FBS. ......ccondessees babes axindh ee laces Mec ath oateae tne aan 448 LITERARY Noriczs . vuRT SISAL UTED RAL AAS CRORES ea veied Tan's pure enemmisat afore cases 375, 455 PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES ...........005. pat 62, 141, 221, 299, 380, 457 Notes AnD MEMORANDA............ basics ccmehen ts Haak 64, 145, 225, 304, 383, 465 ILLUSTRATIONS. —= ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOURS. PAGE Tremella nostoc, Chironomus plu- Natterjack Toad . . . + « 227 mosus, Phryganea grandis, etc.. 13 | Cases of the Caddis-worm . . 307 TINTED PLATES. Sparassis crispa, Rhizina undulata 1 on the Sites of Ancient Lake Palates of Mollusca. . . .:- 67 Dywrellineay sj os) ab. <7 cell ed, MO Ruins of Mendoza . .. . . 85 | Cycads .. : = ll ete eee Egg Parasites . . . . 147 | Germination of "Fern ‘Spores . . 334 Implements and Ornaments found Hairy-backed Animalcules (Pl. L) 394 » 0 » (Pl. IL.) 402 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. 7 Three-spined Stickleback . » « 4 | Snow Crystals . . . . » © » 281 Anacalypta Starkeana . . . . se Star Following. . . . .. . 388 Nebulain Orion . . Supposed new Acinefa . . . . 341 Weighing Balance used at the Mint 3 | Silk-spinning Gnat » 2 6 2 88 Grimmia orbicularis . . . . . 107 | Faggots for Propagating Oysters . 354 Atmospheric Recorder 126, 127, 128 | Breeding Troughs for hatching Index Map of Moon. . . . . 190 eggs of Crustacea . . . « « 355 Diagram of portion of Moon’s Disc 197 | Four-horned Trunk Fish . . . 407 Encalypta vulgaris . . . . . 207 | Fontinalis antipyretica . . . . 410 Cheap Observatory . . . . . 248 | Romsey Observatory .. . Diagrams of Spots onthe Sun . 450 ee ae ’ s i py Sy ey . 4 \ x . 4 . POA* "”? 8 ; “> ; ‘ We 2 YR Wrt : : S25), VOL y rT a yt A & windy eerie a y Pui sisien i BOR T1119} sr ) iy ’ i ae , fae % . 6 t ae a Pays iT BLO Sh id L . ' ar eh + y 5 ”s ° Dis i is * bf ry ri ae, hi i 4 Fated ~ aa errr. feat \ iy wri} ri we a go (G4 mo heen DI sae se tly Bit var, ia its < ih Ty sey is nant WE 0... RIGO Leena ra VTS HY LT * ~ i 0 maT 7 . ‘ = . f » 5 ‘ re ; Ta 4 . ‘ 4 4 a be os 4 oe 4 a ae * \ 5 : . i . ‘ ie ‘ ~- TREY MHTOOTTL 1a ch eS, AAS BRR ‘ ~ rs pianiveeticnne BR TRAC) Mi PAR e ase et i ; ¥ th Din eu ohss | : Ria Vea et ee rete atreat Ne realm’ “7 * bo’ ig ‘ . < rae rota | 5 ENCES get Peal an ie darker Pytete . y FF in. ; vere til 6 Wem - ; , ; ry Pie Pete 5 f * is dele bee eae A, | neers ; : bes A) Pee A Dedsed- yates DAOa TRAITS. Disa SM 4, .J..b iy F . 93 4 risirs Wor ee i ' Ais 4 A aoe U tha este ed | yee « Se plinmobd Mabie! 20. 5 ey eee La? ' PANS es ee PRR CM CLS eee tA a ; ji nieve heals | } £ ‘ ~~ 7 ; ¢ G ‘ " , aid Ghd f iV ty ; ‘ +] a, 1s be Ud at ar : , is) ‘ * Hike th be 4 Ml in } f iae aa vey 8 { 7 _ . oe ' F ct “- ise” ~ ‘ ves. 5 ae OPC’ ‘Mhea 1 Sat ua aU 4 " io Pe ‘ r M ye oy a i ie 5) ar ee Pg Tee Pits «pane Mist tbo ctl Me phase ‘€ id * t . © nr aed ot o an ae a CAS Ped ade ; - id, : : Tas ’ sf Pe Cy , ee . VIO PSiay Cy, PMB: a WE, seria oo wWstureuae 4 4 ; “= 2. Rhizina undulata. as THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER. FEBRUARY, 1864. A NEW BRITISH FUNGUS. _ BY THE REY. M. J. BERKELEY, M.A., F.L.S. (With a Coloured Plate.) THoucH so much has been done since the conclusion of the Cryptogamic part of the English Flora in 1837 towards forming a perfect list of British Fungi, the experience of the present abnormal season shows that there still remains much to reward diligent research. Not only has Mr. Broome, amongst other novelties, added to our list almost all the curious and beautiful species of Ascobolus described by the Messrs. Crouan, of Brest—a dung-borne genus distinguished by the curious pro- perty of partially ejecting the little sausage-like sacs, or asci, which contain the sporidia—while Wales and Scotland have made some welcome additions to our list; but the Rev. G. H. Sawyer has shown that many of the nobler forms which adorn the pine forests of the Continent may still be expected to occur in the more southern districts. In company with AHydnwm imbricatum, one of the most striking of British fungi, though a rare inhabitant of our fir woods, he finds an equally large species, Hydnum levigatum, together with the beautifully tinted Hydnum tomentosum, and H. zonatum, of which the two former are new to this country; and, in addition to these, Lilizina undulata, equally novel and remarkable for its fine fruit, of which, together with the plant itself, we give a sketch. But, besides these objects of interest, and others which we refrain from enumerating, he has contributed to our Fungology the genus Sparassis, a genus so striking that Fries declares that Sparassis crispa, the species which has occurred near Maidenhead, is the most beautiful of all the fungi he has ever seen. Without pledging our taste quite so far, we consider the object so beautiful, in addition to its VOL. V.—NO. I. B 2 A New British Fungus. superior esculent qualities, that it seems worthy of an especial notice in the INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER. Most of our readers are acquainted with the little tufts of white, cylindrical bodies, which occur in profusion on our close- shaved lawns im autumn, looking like little bundles of wax tapers. They belong to Clavaria vermicularis, one of the simplest forms of the genus Clavaria, which contains a large number of esculent species, amongst which the little candles, though small, are not to be despised when dressed in little faggots, like bundles of asparagus. Other species of the genus * are simple and club-shaped, others branched, and some to such a degree that they look like little shrubs divested of their leaves. Some are even, and some much wrinkled; and, though a few are slightly compressed, they never assume the form of _ foliaceous expansions, though a neighbouring genus, once con- founded with it, but distinguished by its more leathery con- sistence, departs from the cylindrical type. They exhibit the most various hues, as white, golden yellow, rose, amethyst, grey, orange, with many intermediate tints. The genus, Sparassis, the name of which is derived from orapatrw, “I tear or lacerate,” with the fleshy consistence of Clavaria and similar esculent characters, has flattened lamina, which are in every part covered with the fructifying surface, or hymenium. In Thelephora and the closely allied genus, Sterewm, in which the divisions are often much flattened and expanded, there is not only a leathery consistence, but the hymenium is definite, being confined to the lower surface. — In Sparassis the lobes are extremely large and numerous, so as to form a rounded and sometimes hemispherical mass, occasionally a foot or more in diameter, with a height of several inches ; which, together with a delicate waxy appearance, ren- der the species most striking objects. The habit is somewhat similar to that of Millepora reticulata, an analogy which is not without example amongst other Lithophytes; in which, as Fries remarks, we find forms which remind us of such genera as Agaricus, Boletus, Hydnum, Clavaria, Peziza, etc. Similar re- * semblances occur amongst the galls on leaves produced by insects, which accordingly haye been confounded by superficial observers, even since the principles of Fungology have been better known, with true fungi. Sparassis laminosa, which may be considered as the type of the genus, has not yet occurred in this country. It is found on old oak stumps, or amongst oak chips, and acquires the size of a large cauliflower. When pure in colour and young it is ex- cellent, but it soon acquires a yellow tinge and disagreeable smell, and is then wholly unfit for food. The laming are very A New British Fungus. - 3 large and broad, springing from a very short stem, and are narrow and wedge-shaped below, but- dilated above, and con- fluent with each other in every direction. Sparassis crispa, though sometimes attaining a considerable size, is on a smaller scale. The laminee are more rounded and leaf-like, though curled, and folded, and variously*lobed and laciniate, with a crest-like margin, and springing from a well- marked, thick, rooting stem, the greater part of which is sunk in the soil. The hymenium is more or less uneven, and rather wrinkled, or rough, with little wart-like elevations. In decay the margin becomes soft, acquiring first a yellow, then a brownish tinge, and finally the whole forms a loathsome mass. Like all other esculent fungi, those specimens only are fit for use in which there is not the shghtest tendency to decay. Sparassis crispa, which was found in a fir wood in south- east Berkshire, between the Asylum for Criminals and the Wellington College, where there is much fern and heath, occurs in several parts of Hurope. It is rare in Sweden, but more common in Germany, especially about Prag, where it is fre- quently brought for sale to the market. It also occurs in France in the provinces bordering on the Rhine, where it is said by Roques to be highly valued. We have not heard of its being used in Hungary, nor does it occur ina large collection of fungi gathered in the neighbourhood of Schemnitz. It is scarcely probable that it will be found in this country in sufficient quantities to make it an article of food, but in case it should be found plentiful, we subjoin Roques’ “ indications” for its preparation, which apply equally to true species of Clavaria, to which genus, indeed, it is referred by Roques, in this following Wulfen, who described it in Jacquin’s Miscellanea Austriaca. Scheeffer referred it previously to Hlvella, with a less correct appreciation of its affinities. “The plant,” says Monsieur Roques, “should be well cleaned from any particles of soil which may adhere to it, then washed in warm water and thoroughly drained, after whidl it should be baked with butter, parsley, a little eschallot, or a soup- con of garlic, and seasoned with pepper and salt. When tender, cream and yelks of eggs should be added. While baking, a few spoonfuls of stock or broth may be added occasionally, to make it more tender. In Austria it is simply fried in butter, and seasoned with sweet basil. 4 Observations on the Three-Spined Stickleback. OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE-SPINED STICKLE- BACK—ITS OVA AND FRY. GASTEROSTEUS ACULEATUS.—Linneus and Bloch. GASTEROSTEUS SPINULOSUS.—Yarrell, Br. F. vol. i. BY J. H. HORSFALL. (With an Tllustration.) Tae taste for aquaria may not be so fashionable as it was some time ago, but the taste for pisciculture is at fever heat, and I know of no object more interesting to the microscopist than the ova and fry of fish. Those who may not be able to procure fecundated ova of salmon or trout, may yet derive as much amusement and in- struction by examining the ova of inferior fish, and by studying its development be able to follow the scientific lecturer in his description of the ova and fry of the more valuable kinds. I am induced to make these remarks from having, on the ard of June last, found several nests of the three-spined stickle- back in a small brook near Leeds, which, after leaving Adel Dam, runs through the village of Meanwood, at which place it receives the refuse of some large tanneries, in which polluted water the nests appeared to be as abundant as in the purer water nearer the source of the brook. THREE-SPINED STICKLEBACK, EIGHT DAYS OLD. oe NATURAL SIZE, The nests were about four or five yards apart, and guarding each nest was a male stickleback, and it was easy to see at a glance which fish was the master tyrant of the colony, his colours being much brighter and more vivid than the others in his immediate vicinity could show; the back a rich green, growing darker towards the tail; inside the lower jaw, and along the gill covers and belly, a vivid red; the eye deep blue, with a rich deep black pupil, the fins appearing nearly transparent. I secured the most brilliant-coloured male fish I could find, and the nest he was guarding ; it was full of ova, in which Observations on the Three-Spined Stickleback. 5 could be seen plamly the eyes of the embryo fry. On reaching home, however, I found the colour of the fish much duller, and the green on the back had changed to a dusky blue. In Mr. Couch’s History of the Fishes of the British Islands, vol. i. p. 167,* is a most interesting account of the habits of this fish, especially its pugnacious disposition. For this reason I placed in the same vessel with the nest and the male fish three females. At once the male began a furious attack on the trio, chasing them about, seizing the most weakly by the tail, dragging it half round the vessel, rising with it to the surface of the water, as if to force it out ; sometimes he would seize it by the pectoral fin, and turn it violently on its side, continuing these attacks incessantly, until, in twelve hours, the weakest female died ; the next died in about six hours after the first. During these attacks the females acted only on the defensive, by pro- jecting the ventral spines, and could they have received him on the sharp point of one of these weapons, such was the force with which he swam at the female, that death to the tyrant must have immediately followed. The male was very bold; he would follow the feather with which I removed the newly- hatched fry, and if the fry escaped off the feather, he seized his infant fish, and devoured it at once. From the first dead female I abstracted some immature ova, which he pounced upon the moment I placed them in the water; then he blew out a portion, re-caught it as it descended, and again ejected a portion to renew his attack on the second dying female. When resting from his attacks on the other fish, he invariably hovered with his nose close to the hole of the nest, with tail considerably elevated, and blew a strong current of water through the nest by means of his pectoral fins. The nest is curiously formed, but not of such minute particles as those described in Mr.Couch’s account. One piece of withered grass measured seven inches, and was so interwoven with the rest as to drag the whole nest some distance before I could extricate it. To save the life of the surviving female, I put her into a separate vessel, and as soon as the male found himself alone he swam round the nest several times, forming it into shape by the rapid action of his pectoral fins ; at short intervals he plunged his nose into the opening as if to clear it, and resumed his position, hovering over the nest, and forcing water ina strong current through it. His dorsal spines were now laid back so as to be hardly visible; when, however, he was attacking the females these spines were constantly erect. He often took the empty crusts of the hatched ova, as well as the * A History of the Fishes of the British Islands. By Jonathan Couch, Esq., F.L.S. London: Groombridge and Sons. 6 Observations on the Three-Spined Stickleback. fry that had died in the hatching, into his mouth, but instantly ejected them. The fry began to hatch out the day I got the nest; three ova hatched while under examination with the microscope. First I saw distinctly the entire fish curled up in the shell of the ovum; a convulsive movement, and the tail protruded, and, by a continuance of these convulsions, the entire fish freed itself from the crust of the ovum in about twenty-five minutes after the crust was first ruptured ; in some instances the head and tail protruded simultaneously, in which case the crust of the ovum remained round the fry like an awkward belt, which was not got rid of under forty-eight hours. _ The newly-hatched fry is a quarter of an inch long, and is furnished with a transparent membrane, like the fry of salmon and trout. This membrane commences where the anterior dorsal fin in the adult fish is seen, and continues unbroken till it reaches a short way over the umbilical vesicle, where it ter- minates. Inside this membrane, forming the outline of the fish itself, a very fine dark brown line extends all round the fish, and inside this a faint double streak of a pale orange colour. These orange lines are blood-vessels, and, with a high power, the blood-discs can be clearly seen running from and to the heart, which is situated just under the lower jaw, its colour light red, its beat rapid, the mouth of the fish opening with every pulsation of the heart; the eyes as well as the head are large, the latter covered with several irreeular dark brown spots. On the day after hatching, the fish assumes much more colour, losing its transparency, so that the flow of blood in the body is not so clearly seen; but in the umbilical vesicle, which is becoming rapidly absorbed, the flow of blood in its numerous vessels is very visible. The incessant motion of the pectoral fins suggests the fluttering of a phantom, they are so transpa- rent. On the third day after hatching, the fry is much more covered, especially on the head, with dark brown spots, having deeply serrated edges; some of these spots also appear on the umbilical vesicle. Through this colour the heart is no longer visible, nor any blood-vessels, except those between the rays of the pectoral fins, which are losing their transparency, and, are at times for a moment stationary. Tho eyes as well as the head occasionally move, the mouth continually opens and shuts ; the outer circle of the eye can be perceived through the micro- scope. ‘lhe fry now are very active, often swimming to the sur- face of the water, then sinking gradually to the bottom, when, — after a short rest, they dart rapidly about again. _ On the fourth, fifth, and sixth day after hatching, my infant sticklebacks make little progress ; the umbilical vesicle is gra- Observations on the Three-Spined Stickleback. 7 dually being absorbed, the spots on the body show less serrated edges, and are deeper in colour; the entire surface of the fish is stained rather than coloured a cinnamon brown ; the envelop- ing membrane is much reduced in places, especially at what will form the root of the caudal fin. On the seventh day the rays of the anal fin begin to appear, six imperfect rays of a brown colour being visible under the microscope ; the lower jaw alone maintains its transparency. On the eighth day, the markings of the anal fin are more per- fect, the membrane is much narrower, except where the spies and fins in the adult fish are seen ; four days after this, or on the twelfth day, the first formation of the caudal fin is seen, also the protrusion of the ventral spines. Notwithstanding a daily change of water, on the thirteenth day my infant sticklebacks were attacked by a parasite, in- visible to the naked eye, but, when magnified, it was ad- hering to the membrane which still encircled the fish. This membrane showed clearly the ravages of the invader, bemg torn in several places, and by this I lost my whole stock, losing first their activity and in twelve hours, life. It was my intention to have ascertained how long after fecundation the ova remain before the fry are hatched, and the different periods that elapse in the development of the dorsal and ventral spines, and also the dorsal, caudal, and anal fins; this I am obliged to defer to another season. I have, however, seen enough to prove that the delightful study of pisciculture may be successfully followed without practismg on the ova of valuable fish like the salmon and trout, for quite sufficient resemblance exists between the development of the ova and fry of the insignificant sticklebacks and the king of fresh-water fishes, that he who studies the inferior may easily understand the greater. oa The Mosses Anacalypta and Pottia. THE MOSSES ANACALYPTA AND POTTIA, BY M. G. CAMPBELL. FEBRUARY, with its chilling breezes, its sleety storms, its leafless trees, and its oft snowy lawns, while it seems to freeze the young buds of the tall trees, and hang their boughs with icicles, yet spares the lowly mosses, and gives some of the most minute and delicate strength to ripen their tiny fruits. Of these, the genus Anacalypta stands foremost, deriving its name from dva, above, and KaXvTTos, covered, in allusion to the circumstance that the calyptra remains on the capsule until the spores are perfectly ripe, which is, doubtless, a provision of nature against the inclemency of the season. The members of this, like those of its sub-genus Pottva, named in honour of Professor Pott, of Brunswick, are small, chiefly annual or biennial mosses, loosely gregarious, growing upon newly-exposed soil, and occasionally upon walls in low- land districts. The two sections are exceedingly similar in mode of growth, in fruit, in the form and structure of the leaves, and in the inflorescence; but differ in the Pottias being without a peristome, while the Anacalyptas proper are furnished with a peristome, which consists of a single row of sixteen teeth, united at the base by a narrow membrane, plane, lanceo- late or imperfectly divided into two portions, or perforated ; occasionally, however, incomplete or fragmentary, and without a medial line. The spores, too, are rather smaller than in Pottia. On banks and in fields in the middle and south of Britain, those who wish to investigate this interesting group may find the beautiful little Anacalypta Starkeana, (Stark’s Anacalypta), of which we give a magnified illustration ; the natural size of the plant being less than one line in height of stem, and, when in fruit, with a seta of about equal length; but in this, as in other respects, the species is variable, for in the same tuft may be found specimens with fruit- stalks twice as long as others. It will, however, admirably serve as a type of both sections of this genus; indeed, it has puzzled muscologists to determine to which section it should properly be given, the presence or absence of a peris- tome being the chief difference between it and Pottia minutula, or the dwarf Pottia, variety conica, Which might almost be called a toothless he fee a Anacalypta Starkeana ; and, if we may judge by nara ai the variety of names that have been conferred upon it, as A. Starkeana by Nees and Hornshuch, Bruch and Schimper ; The Mosses Anacalypta and Pottia, - a Pottia Starkeana, by C. Miller; Grimmia Starkeana, by Smith and others; Bryum minutum, by Dickson; and Weissia affinis by Hooker and Taylor; while Wilson con- fesses that he “dare not pronounce them” (the two mosses, Anacalypta Starkeana and Pottia minutula) “ distinct, having examined numberless intermediate forms, which pass insensibly from the one to the other.’ We shall, perhaps, be ready to exclaim, ‘‘ Who shall decide where doctors disagree ?”* Yet we conceive that, if gathered during the present month, before there is a chance of the peristome being lost, which may be more fugatious than hitherto suspected; and if due attention be paid to the position of the foliage, that of P. minutula being more erect and appressed to the stem in a dry state, in all the - specimens we have examined, as well as having the lower leaves frequently of a reddish hue, there may be less difficulty in de- ciding on its proper name and location. Having thus shown that the peculiar form of the fruit and foliage is sufficiently characteristic of the whole family, genus, and sub-genus, we now proceed to describe Anacalypta Starke- ana more particularly. As we have already said, its length of stem is less than one twelfth of an inch, within which stature it bears two kinds of leaves, the lower ones less, of an ovate acuminate form ; the upper ones larger, oblong acuminate, or lanceolate, carimato- concave, the margin recurved, the reddish nerve excurrent, and forming a short mucro at the apex of the leaf, very seldom discontinued below it, all of them spreading; the areolz small and roundish, like the perforations of a very fine pm or needle point, larger at the base, the capsule oval, with rather thin walls of a shining chestnut-brown, sometimes regularly striped with lines of a deeper tint; the lid conical and obtuse ; annulus persistent ; teeth of the peristome usually of a pale red or yellow colour, lanceolate, and obtuse, with distant transverse bars, but very variable, both im form and colour, more or less perforated, without a medial line, and erect when dry; the fruit-stalk loosely cellular, almost semi-pellucid, usually straight when growing, slightly curved in a dry state, and somewhat twisted ; the spores smoothish, the barren flowers axilhary, mostly leafless, sometimes, but rarely, with a single involveral leaf; while the Pottia minutula, which in other respects it so nearly resembles, has barren flowers of from two to three leaved. Both are found in fruit during January and February, but the Pottia appears to continue in fructification longer than the Anacalypta. * It must, however, be acknowledged that there are few mosses which have not been honoured with a like multiplicity of names, a circumstance, doubtless, chiefly arising from the advance of science rendering the old nomenclature defec- tive, from incorrectness or inadequacy. wy - The Mosses Anacalypta and Pottia. : There are three other Anacalyptas, all of which fruit in the spring. Of these, A. ceespitosa, or the Round-fruited, grows on chalk hills, and has been found on Woolsonbury Hill, near Hurstpierpoint, Sussex. It is about the same size as A. Starkeana, but is easily distinguished from it by the rostrate lid of the capsule, which latter is also more ovate, and of a yellowish-brown, with a yellowish fruit-stalk, and plane-mar- gined and narrower foliage. A. cespitosa has “also a distinct pericheetium, the inner pericheetial leaf being very broad and sheathing, and a yellowish annulus surrounds the mouth of the capsule. It-fruits in March, as does also Anacalypta lanceolata, or the Lance-leaved Anacalypta. The latter is, however, of taller stature, the stems being from one line to half an inch long. The oval capsule, tapering at the base into a rather long reddish pedicel, has rather thick walls, of a glossy chest- nut colour, and is somewhat contracted below the mouth when dry. The lid is obliquely rostrate, but varies in length, some- times longer, sometimes shorter ; the simple annulus dehiscing in fragments ; and the peristome in this, as in Starkeana, is extremely variable; sometimes the teeth are almost linear, and rather long; sometimes shorter, and lanceolate obtuse ; sometimes linear lanceolate, and rather acute, formed of a double row of cellules, here and there perforated along the medial line ; somewhat jointed, flattish and minutely papillose, i. e., rough, with small roundish prominences, and usually of a pale reddish-fawn colour; sometimes of a deeper red; sub-erect when dry, or slightly incurved at the apex ; somewhat oblique in direction, and always connected below by a common mem- brane. The yellowish-brown calyptra reaches half-way down the capsule. The rare Anacalypta latifolia also fruits in the spring, but it can never be confounded with either of the others; its singularly bulb-like clustered foliage, of an almost silvery hue, gives it so peculiar an aspect as at once to distinguish it. The leaves are roundish-ovate, apiculate, or obtuse, very concave and imbricated, not recurved in the margin, membranous, shining, and whitish, with an erect capsule, whose lid is half as long as itself, and bearing a calyptra that reaches half-way down the capsule ; the seta long, and annulus sub-persistent. It is an elegant moss, inhabiting alpine districts, where it is found in the crevices of rocks. It is met with in several places in Switzerland, and has been found on the Clova mountains in Scotland, in Glen Phee or Glen Dole, by Mr. Drummond. Of the Pottias, P. cavifolia, or the oval-leaved Pottia, is re- markable for the variation in the length of its leaves, fruit-— stalk, and capsule, even when growing in the same locality ; the different forms growing in patches, not promiscuously, but The Mosses Anacalypta and Pottia. - ae in separate groups; some having fruit-stalks more than half an inch long, others with the seta scarcely a line in height, and with leaves equally diverse, so that one unacquainted with the circumstance might easily imagine them to belong to different species. Jt may, however, always be known by the peculiarity of three or four membranous appendages attached to the nerve on the upper side of the leaf. These appendages are analogous to the lamelle of Polytrichwm hercynicum and the allied species. The leaves are, besides, erecto-patent, concave, slightly imbricated, obovate, or elliptical, and more or less piliferous ; sometimes, however, they are destitute of the hairy point. The capsule is oval, crowning a shorter or longer pedicel, and having an obliquely rostrate lid shorter than the capsule. Itis found on banks and mud-walls, and bears its fruit in March. Pottia truncata, or the common Pottia, ripens its fruit in February and March. ‘This also varies in stature, having stems from half a line to half an inch long; sometimes simple, some- times branched, with a fruit-stalk two or three lines in length ; and, though it chiefly bears solitary capsules, sometimes two and even three are found growing together. These capsules are sometimes very short, broad, and wide-mouthed, at others oblong and truncate. The leaves are more or less spreading, widely lanceolate, often wider above the middle, oblong and acuminate, with a reflexed margin, the nerve most frequently sub-excurrent, but occasionally ceasing below the apex. Wilson remarks that a variety of this moss sometimes occurs in wet seasons, “ with the stem branched in a fascicu- lated manner, with six or eight branches, each bearing a capsule.” The lid is obliquely rostrate, and convex at the base. Another member of the family fruiting in February is Pottia Wilsont, the oval-fruited Pottia. It grows on banks in a sandy soil, intermixed with the larger variety of P. truncata ; was found by Mr. Wilson on rocky ground near Bangor and Carnarvon; also near Llanfaeloe and Holyhead in North Wales ; by others in Sussex, near Wrexham, and near Over in Cheshire. It is supposed not to be unfrequent, but lable to be mistaken for P. cavifolia or for P. truncata. In aspect, however, it differs considerably from the latter, growing in close, round, convex tufts, of a pale, glaucous colour; whereas P. truncata, though occurring in similar situations, presents extended flat patches with dark green foliage; and, while the leaves of P. truncata are quinquefarious, those of P. Wilsoni are octofarious. ‘The nerve, too, is more excurrent, forming a mucro equal to half the width of the leaf. The areolation of the leaf is opaque and small in the upper part, larger and dia- 12 The Mosses Anacalypta and Pottia. phanous towards the base. It also differs in the inflorescence, P. truncata bearmg gemmiform, barren flowers, while P. Wilsoni has naked antheridia, and fruits nearly a month earlier. They need not, therefore, be confounded; and the peculiar structure of the leaves of P. cavifolia easily distinguishes it when placed under the microscope. Pottia crimta, or bristly Pottia, is another which bears fruit in February, with stems more densely and compactly tufted than P. Wilsoni, and very obtuse, octofarious leaves, in this respect not unlike P. Wilsoni, but with a stronger rigid nerve, running out into a much longer bristle poimt, twice or thrice as long as in P. Wilsoni, scarcely opaque ; the areolee larger, cap- sule elliptic-oblong, scarcely contracted at the mouth, having an oblique rostellate lid, a smooth calyptra, and naked antheridia. Pottia Heimii, the lance-leaved Pottia, inhabits moist banks near the sea, and is rarely in fruit till April or May. This isa taller species, but, like its congeners, it varies considerably, differmg in the size, shape, and direction of the leaves, as well as in the length of the capsule and lid, while the fruit- stalk is sometimes less than half an inch, at other times an inch long. The stems are more or ee branched, the leaves concave, lanceolate, denticulate, or serrated at ay apex, which is acute ; margin plane, not recurved; the nerve reddish, scarcely at all excurrent, and the inflorescence polygamous, having the barren and fertile flowers variously disposed on the same indi- vidual; the flowers frequently synoicous, sometimes entirely barren ; in which case it is destitute of paraphyses. When both organs are found united in the same flower, they are ac- companied by subclavate paraphyses, longer than the anthe- ridia. ‘he capsule is of a reddish brown, erect, obovate, or oblong and truncate, not at all contracted at the mouth ; the lid obliquely rostrate, and adhering to the columella. We have thus completed the review of this minute, variable, but interesting genus, as far, at least, as British examples ~ extend. ne iy ntl th A yidbhr' is a ‘ ars { eg, nm ; sind am cre i ial ay ‘ alt ath Fn ene Hho ahi Windfall for the Mirroscope,” A Windfall for the Microscope. : 13 A WINDFALL FOR THE MICROSCOPE. BY THE HON. MRS. WARD. (With a Coloured Plate.) Any one who (whether truly or otherwise) has acquired the name of a naturalist is lable to be asked concerning a jelly-like sub- stance occasionally appearing in sufficient quantity to attract observation. The question sometimes will be, “‘ What is that jelly which falls from the sky ?” as though that method of depo- sition could alone account for its sudden appearance. In answer, we have generally to say on being shown a speci- men, that the ‘jelly alluded to has certainly not fallen from the sky, and can pronounce it to be the plant described by Linnzeus as T'remella nostoc, and variously named by other authorities Nostoc, Tremella, ‘‘ witch-butter,” and “‘shot stars.’ This Nostoc is of a brownish-green colour, and, with a high magni- fying power, proves to be composed of a multitude of very beautiful beaded filaments, lymg in gelatinous fronds. These filaments, it would seem, rapidly subdivide, and in this way in- crease, while new fronds form around them when favoured by damp. ‘They frequently,’ says Dr. Carpenter,* “attain a very considerable size, and as they occasionally present them- selves quite suddenly (especially in the latter part of the autumn on damp garden walks), they have received the name of ‘fallen stars.’ They are not always so suddenly produced, however, as they appear to be; for they shrink up into mere films in dry weather, and expand again with the first shower.” The inquirers will, perhaps, be content with this explana- tion ; but possibly the objection may be raised that Nostoc is not the only kind of jelly, and they have seen some of quite different appearance. Possibly, then, a story which I have to tell of some jelly found under circumstances of undoubted isolation, and in a place where nothing of the sort had existed a few hours before, may throw light on the matter. It happened a few years ago, and I took such notes as I judged of importance at the time, making careful drawings of the * mysterious substance, and the unexpected changes which it underwent. To proceed, then: On the 20th of August I received from a friend fourteen miles off a little bottle containing a pale, jelly- like substance (Fig. 1), and a paper containing about thirty black grains, at first sight much resembling dry tea (Fig. 2). The information my friend sent with them was that they had been found on the deck of his yacht, the vessel being * The Microscope and its Revelations, p. 338. 14 A Windfall for the Microscope. moored as usual at some distance from land in an inlet of Lough Ree, county Westmeath. I placed the jelly carefully in a tumbler of rain-water, and perceived that it was composed of small, roundish masses of | two kinds, one containing minute brown particles (Fig. 3), and the other green (Fig. 4), and both bearing a general resem- blance to miniature frog-spawn. The masses containing green particles were each attached to a cord-like fibre, and were more compact than those with brown. ‘The resemblance to frog- spawn recalled to my mind a dried specimen which I had lately seen of the plant Batrachospermum, and had the effect of leading me to refer them at that time to the vegetable kingdom. The microscope did not throw much light on the matter. With a magnifying power of fifteen diameters, it showed the brown spots as in Fig. 5, and the green as in Fig. 6; but it helped me to make out something about the black, tea-like erains (Fig. 2). These proved capable of being softened; a grain, placed for a few minutes in water, separated into oval particles, very similar to the brown particles of the jelly, but flatter, as if from drying and mutual pressure. (Figs. 7, 8.) The idea at once suggested itself that it had been exactly similar to the jelly; but, from being exposed to the sun, had dried and hardened. | I wrote to ask a few questions about the finding of the jelly and black grains, and ascertaimed the following par- ticulars :— The boatman whose duty it was to scour the deck each morning was repeatedly annoyed by finding spots of jelly (which he compared to “small star-fish”) lymg on the deck, sail-cover, etc. He at first thought he had taken it up when wetting the deck with water from the lake; but, when the weather became so rainy as to make this artificial wetting un- necessary, he still found them. On two mornings, instead of jelly, the black grains were found. My correspondent went on board his yacht on one of these occasions. The morning was fine, and the grains felt hard like glue, and came away easily from the wood when a, penknife was passed beneath them. When they lay on a flat surface they were rounded like drops of sealing-wax ; on sloping surfaces they were elongated ; for instance, those lying on the middle of the eylindrical “ sail-coat’?? which covers the mainsail when furled, were round, while those at its sides appeared to have run down, as dropped glue would have done. My in- formant did not observe any grains on ropes in a vertical. position, or on the mast; but he noticed a coil of perfectly white rope spotted all over with them. The boatman said he thought the black grains appeared in rather greater quantity 4 A Windfall for the Microscope. ; 15 than the jelly had done; he also remarked that they were most abundant near the stern of the vessel, just where snow with a little wind, or small hail with a good deal of wind would have been sure to collect; but this remark refers only to their ” position ; the total quantity was much smaller than a deposit of snow or hail would have been. Having now fully detailed the antecedents of the jelly, I proceed to the second part of my story. I left the jelly for five days in the tumbler—out of sight, and, I believe, to a certain extent, out of mind also; and the small portion of that with brown particles which I had last examined with the microscope remained still in the “animalcule cage,” slightly flattened between its two discs of glass. On placing the animalcule cage under the microscope on August 25th I saw with sudden surprise that several singular- looking larve had made their appearance among the jelly. That they had been produced from the brown particles was evident, as many empty shells were visible, and other similar larvee could be discerned ready to come out of the particles, or eggs, a8 they may in future be called. Fig. 9 shows the larve, the eggs, and the “ empty shells” above alluded to. The eggs display the cellular structure so commonly observed in minute aquatic insects and animalcules. These larvae were remarkable for their transparency, re- minding the spectator of Dickens’s observation with reference to Marley’s ghost,—‘‘ His body was transparent, so that Scrooge, observing him and looking through his waistcoat could see the two buttons on his coat behind!” I at once recognized their forms as familiar to me. A similar insect, with its strange, seal-like head and tiny pairs of feet (seal-like also) has often thrust itself across the field of view—a giant among’ pigmies—while I have been examining minute animal- cules with one of the higher powers of the microscope. The larvee appeared perpetually struggling to free them- selves from the jelly, and always incommoded by the slippery glass above and below them; except when they indulged in a lively dance in the surrounding drop of water. Their gait in this movement having reminded me of the common “ blood- worm,” Fig. 11 (larva of Chironomus plumosus, an insect nearly allied to the gnats), I obtained one of the latter from a water- trough which abounded in its mud hiding-places, and observed that the new larvee were very similar to it. This gave me a hint for the more comfortable establishment of the little Westmeath strangers. I placed them in a wine- glass half full of stagnant water, strained through muslin to guard against the presence of larger, and possibly hostile insects; and to the same miniature aquarium I removed the 16 A Windfall for the Microscope. ‘brown particles” from the tumbler, observing that a similar change had taken place among them. In less than half an hour numbers of the little larvee had rolled themselves im mud cases (Fig. 10). Meanwhile the green particles remained unaltered. On the © dlst, however, the contents as seen through the microscope seemed to assume a more defined shape. As may be supposed, they were inspected daily with much curiosity. On the 2nd of September the uniform green spots, so often watched, were evidently seen to be exchanged for something moving. It was one of the excitements of a microscope to guess what appear- ance they would have when magnified. Fig. 12 represents what the microscope showed when they were conveyed to it, and the form at first sight reminds one of a crayfish, or lobster; but they proved to be the “ caddis- worm,” larva of the caddis-fly. ‘The immensely long, jointed legs, alike suited for building the well-known habitations of the caddis-worm, and for walking nimbly among water-weeds, and the soft body, evidently requiring defensive armour, were soon recognized. _ I placed them in a glass, stocked with what I believed to be the materials of their trade ; and at first they floated somewhat helplessly on the surface of the water. Hre long, however, these young creatures began very properly to make their clothes; or, as one may say, to build their houses, for these were real buildings, although no larger than those represented at Fig. 14. The reader may imagine how small the grains of sand must be of which they are constructed. At Fig. 13 these tiny edifices may be seen magnified fifteen diameters. The jelly, then, was no other than the eges of insects, and its appearance corresponded with some descriptions given by Westwood.* He speaks of the eggs of one of the Chironomus family as deposited on the leaves of aquatic plants, and covered with a mass of gluten; and he says of the caddis-flies (Phry- ganeide) that they deposit their eggs in a double gelatinous mass, which is of a green colour, and he adds that the female of Phryganea grandis has been observed to creep down the stems of aquatic plants under the water, for the purpose of placing her eggs in a desirable position. The young caddis-worms which emerged on September 2nd were alive and well a fortnight later, and had enlarged their cases considerably. Unfortunately the story ends here. Iwas called away from home, locked up the wine-glasses which con- tained the two kinds of larvae,—found them dried up on my return, and was unsuccessful in my attempts for their resus- citation. But I think it will be pronounced that I had * Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects, vol. ii., pp. 62, 516. Minstrels of the Winter. =) @ - ae the advantage of having watched a curious part of their history. ; And now, after all, how did the jelly get upon the deck of the “Dulcinea”? No doubt Chironomus and Phryganea deposited their eggs there ; but why so recklessly over sail-coat, coil of rope, and deck, instead of in the lake close at hand? That I do not attempt to explain, but merely state the facts as IL observed or heard them. MINSTRELS OF THE WINTER. BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD. THERE are not many, even among genuine inquirers and observers, who can exercise the needful patience to gather knowledge for themselves on the subject of winter birds. A man who has spent six days in stalking a “ muckle hart of Benmore,”’ or who has passed a night im a hunter’s lodge on the shore of a lonely mere in Le Morvan, or has endured wind, rain, and hunger in angling for grayling beside a poor swim on the banks of the Wye, the Dove, or the Ribble, may be able to sit still for hours on a muggy December day, or during the prevalence of a north-easter m January, and make notes of what birds move about among the dead leaves and fern in the copse, or try their luck beside the frozen brook, or sail high in the heavens, screaming more discordantly than the wind, on their way to discover a land of plenty, when frost has made amore terrible dearth than a burning drought in summer time. It is not at all a barren occupation to sit at a window overlooking an open country or a well wooded garden, and by the aid of a short-focus telescope, take note of all the birds that come and go, how many robins, blackbirds, thrushes, how many less-known aves flit across the scene, or pause for a season and explore for sustenance, and perhaps whistle a merry song, or engage in a small encounter—though birds rarely fight in winter—and thus acquire somewhat of a notion of the ornithological wealth of the district. One thing I know by experience, that if the residents in the suburbs of London, especially those dwelling three or more miles from St. Paul’s, were to engage themselves in this very quiet and in- exciting recreation occasionally, they would derive considerable satisfaction in learning by observation, that many more birds visit the gardens in the suburbs of London, as, indeed, of all large towns, than is usually supposed; and this knowledge might make many more contented with their lot who are now VOL. V.—NO. I. Cc 18 f Minstrels of the Winter. bitter with dissatisfaction at the rapid growth of towns and the change which is passing over all things rural. I am often amused at the look of astonishment with which friends some- times receive my verbal accounts of birds that visit my garden, but I am not surprised that they find it hard to believe, and disposed to receive the narrative as a joke, for I sometimes hear one say, “I haven’t seen a robin the whole winter through,” though the speaker lives, perhaps, in“an open rural spot, where a bird-catcher could make a good living, if allowed to put down traps in the garden for robins only. The fact is, the majority of people go through the world with their eyes shut. Intellectual. observers are thinly scattered, and it is as yet known but to few how abundant and how cheap are the sources of human happiness. Not that an observer now pressing his nose to the window pane, or chattering his teeth on a bleak common, would see or hear a great many birds. The great flocks of harvest finches that winged their way across the stubbles lke driving showers, appearing and re-appearing as they were disturbed by the sound of wheels, or voices, or guns, have all dispersed ; the plough has broken up their pastures, and they, for the most part, forage for themselves smegly, or in very small parties, the males and females being for the present separated. In the gardens there are fewer birds of all kinds, even black- birds, thrushes, and sparrows are scarce, and, what is worse, they are quiet. From the end of October to the end of January, the country is as quiet as it is leafless, indeed, more quiet than leafless, and the silence is oftentimes oppressive, especially when far into November and December the meadows are still as green as m April, many trees still holding their leaves, and the sky bright and blue, with soft breezes blowing, and everything, except the birds, affecting to consider winter an impossibility. But there is no hypo- crisy among the birdies, their winter has come, and they wait without murmuring the return of spring; and because of this silence I think it well to gossip a little on the song birds of winter; for happily there are a few, and Nature has ordered it that no day or hour in the whole year round should pass without some sort of voice to serve it for a chronicle. ““ What are the birds now to be heard? Tellus,” you say, “about the minstrels of the winter, their names, their features, and their songs.” On just such a day as I write this, December 18th—barometer 30°41, thermometer im the shade, 42°—the sun shining brightly in a cloudless grey sky. breeze from the north-east, brisk enough to keep all the windmills clack- ing—on just such a day I was sauntering beside the Avon at Ringwood, in the New Forest, wondering how the cows could Minstrels of the Winter. f 19 manage to get so fat on potamageton and other water plants that they always feed upon there, when suddenly 1 was startled by a splash, and saw a little bird dash into the clear stream. beside me, and fly along the green weedy bed with the swiftness of an arrow, then emerge, fly upwards, and alight on the bough of a willow overhanging the water. There for a moment he was busy jerking down his throat some sort of food he had captured durmeg his brief submergence, and then he broke out into such a clear rmging song, that I might have fancied the whole affair a dream, or the bird an angel in dis- guise. J remember the event the more particularly, because, till then, I always believed the water blackbird (Cinclus aqua- ticus) to be exclusively a native of the highland glens, where it overpowers the roar of the waterfall and the muttering of the mountain breeze with its rich, wild melody, loudest among ‘the feathered minstrels of Britain. I soon lost my friend ; he vanished as-suddenly as he appeared, and but once since have I seen this most curious, most rare, and most musical of all the minstrels of the winter. Bechstein describes the water-ousel as a favourite cage- bird with the Germans, and Macgillivray, greatest of word painters, tells of its habits as observed by him among the fastnesses of the north. In form and features this bird resem- bles a starling more than a blackbird; the head tapers towards ' the beak, the beak is long, flattish, and black, the head and neck are of a rusty brown, the rest of the upper part of the body is black, with an ashy tint, the quill feathers and the very short tail are black, breast pure white, shading into deep maroon, and that again shading into black, which extends over the belly. Tt is a peculiar bird; when looking forward in a half crouching attitude, and for a moment motionless, it has the look of a hunery charity boy with a bob-tail coat; but when it lifts up its head and stands almost erect, showing its broad white breast, to pour out its rich mellifluous song, there is a pride and daring im its attitude befittine a bird that loves best the mountain breeze, the brawling brook, and the foaming waterfall. It haunts the stream in the capacity of a fisher, and its food is principally the spawn of trout and salmon, and this it seems to take during its flight under water, and without needing to pause where it is impossible it could contimue for more than a few seconds at a time. Another real minstrel of the winter is the missel-thrush, which I mention with less of the pleasure I should otherwise experience, because I have found it impossible to cultivate mistletoe in my garden at Stoke Newington through the vast ierease of London smoke, consequent on the growth of build- ings on every hand. ‘The China rose was the first to feel the pa Minstrels of the Winter. shock, now the mistletoe, which used to thrive in these parts, begins to show signs of sickliness, and when we lose that we must say farewell to the missel-thrush, or rather he will take farewell of us, and we shall miss his boisterous song. Hitherto the missel-thrush (Turdus viscivorus) has been a constant and a frequent visitor at Stoke Newington, and all the gardens of the northern suburbs. He is indeed fond of the suburbs of London, and often seen at Brixton, Tulse Hill, Sydenham, and other spots which still retain a show of rurality. But though fond of mistletoe berries, there is no necessary connection between the bird and the druidical plant; and if we lose the missel-thrush it will not be because the mistletoe has perished, but because the new houses interpose a barrier between us and the open country. Every winter during the past seven years I have not failed to see the missel-thrush in the garden half-a- dozen times at least, and it is some satisfaction to know that a great boss of fruiting ivy, which bears berries most abundantly, is an attraction to this and other winter songsters, and no in- crease of building will destroy that or render it less fruitful. Very few birds are gregarious in winter, two or three black- birds and song-thrushes may sometimes be seen on the lawn at one time, and occasionally a dozen sparrows will forage in company among the rhododendrons; but. the storm-cock is loneliest of the lonely—an emblem of solitude—for he comes alone, he comes at times when most other birds are cowering for shelter in unseen retreats, and for a thrush of any kind his size 1s so vast and his aspect so daring, that there is a charm about his solitariness, and his loud, melancholy, monotonous song is as appropriate to his whole character and habits as to the drea¥y season when he most rejoices to utter it. It appears not to have been noticed that this bird plays the hawk occa- sionally among the minor minstrels, and is at times as much feared by small birds as the buzzard and the kite. I have seen a missel-thrush make a dash into a bed of American shrubs in front of my drawing-room windows, and put to flight a score or more of sparrows with expressions of alarm, as if a bomb-shell had fallen amongst them. White remarks upon its pugnacity during the season of nidification, ‘ driving such birds as ap- proach its nest with great fury to a distance. The Welsh call it pen y Ulwyn, the head or master of the coppice. He suffers no magpie, jay, or blackbird to enter the garden where he haunts, and is for the time a good guard to the new-sown legumens.” This last note has strangely escaped the notice of the advocates of birds against the destroyers who make no exception in their wholesale devastation, by trap, poison, and gun. But it is not in the breeding season only that the storm- cock is pugnacious ; he is at all times a hater of birds, even of Minstrels of the Winter. : 21 his own race, and, like the robin, leads a lonely life, knowing no fellowship except with his mate while love rules him, and to her showing an attachment as ardent as his hostility to all else is unscrupulous and savage. But he is a “noble savage,” and _ when fairly in song, which does not happen till the new year turns, rejoices to peal out his loud, wild, and mournful notes when every other bird is silenced by the keenness of the wintry blast. Occasionally in the vicinity of villages, and in well-wooded gardens, the winter days are enlivened by the notes of the woodlark, the wren, the gold-crowned wren, the robin, and small companies of wandering finches. But the extent to which these become musical, indeed the degree in which they visit the abodes of men, depends much upon the weather, and there are times when during frost, fog, and snow, no birds capable of a musical note save the sparrow and the robin are ever seen. - Where they hide at such inclement seasons no man can tell, but that many of them perish in hard winters is but too well known by the finding of their dead bodies sometimes in dozens and scores, sometimes in hundreds, in sheltered nooks to which they had resorted for mutual protection, and to perish of want in a community of misery. ven when no such terrors threaten them, the dull weather so common to December makes them all mute, and it is only on those halcyon days when the sun breaks through the gloom, and makes a momentary spring- time, that we are reminded by their music that the world is still peopled with happy feathered creatures. Song birds are not such victims of blind unmeaning impulse, not stich mere crea- tures of instinct as to sing, as Tennyson says, “ because they must.” They participate with us im the depression consequent on gloom, and the cheerfulness that accompanies life and Nght; and it is because during December the world is more dead in the aspects of the sky and the state of vegetation than at all other seasons, that then nature is most silent, in a certain sense the grave has closed over all things lovely, and the birdies are buried with the flowers. It is not lack of food, but lack of sunshine that causes the general silence of December ; fog is more depressing than frost, and the minstrels that are still capable of song take their moods from the state of the elements, and are simply silent when it would be out of taste to sng. It is worthy of notice in this connection that we celebrate the most joyous festival of the whole year at a time when the aspect of heaven and earth are most depressing, the origin of Christmas lying far back and beyond the blessed history of which it is now the brightest outward symbol, and in some sense but a con- tinuation in an altered form of those Pagan feasts in which the holly, mistletoe, and ivy were originally consecrated as emblems 22 - Minstrels of the Winter. of rejoicing. Still with all the dulness of the time, some songs prevail, and when the resident birds have played their parts in the meagre wintry chorus, there are many sojourners that have a song to sing, and a few words will suffice to enumerate all but a few that make themselves conspicuous by their bravery — and gaiety. : Let us not forget how courageously the smallest of British birds defies the winter, and is always in a merry mood. The common wren (Motacilla troglodytes, Linn.) is as common in the gardens at Stoke Newington as the robin and the thrush. On a sharp winter it is a common occurrence to see half a dozen at a time scuttling along the top fringe of the ivy fence, or busthng about among the dead leaves under the evergreen shrubs, looking like mice, and uttering a very mouse-like squeak, which, like a stray primrose or lingering chrysan- themum, is the more welcome, because there is then little competition, and we are glad of any noise out of doors that is not positively discordant. Neville Wood does real justice to this miniature of a songster. He says, “the song is short, shrill, and remarkably loud in proportion to the size of the bird. It may perhaps be ranked amongst the most trivial of our feathered choristers, but the notes are more prized than they would otherwise be on account of their being frequently heard in mid-winter, when a mere scream would almost seem sweet, especially if it proceeded from the throat of so tiny a bird as the ivy wren. And thus insignificant and humble (with regard to musical merit) as are its strains, I always listen to them with delight in the dreary seasons, though we are apt _ to overlook them altogether in fairer times.””? The gold-crowned wren (fequlus awrocapillus) I have seen but once here, and thaf' was in the winter of 1858, during a dark drizzly day, when the bird appeared suddenly toying among the branches of a thorn near the window, as if wholly unconscious of the cold, though it is known to be the most susceptible to cold of all the British birds, and looking for the moment as if a stuffed humming bird had suddenly come to life and escaped from a glass shade. After sporting among the shrubs for several minutes, this “winged gem,” remarkable for its minuteness, pertness, and the brilliant colour of its crest, made its way in a sort of jerking flight across the garden, shone for a few seconds like a flame on the ivy, and then with a small sound like the creaking of a wheel at a distance made its way towards the distant meadows. I have rarely travelled far in winter in any part of Herts or Surrey without seeing one or more speci- mens of this pretty bird in the course of a journey ; but I never heard it really sing until after the, turn of the year, and then to understand the scope and character of its song the listener Minstrels of the Winter. 23 should be motionless, or the bird will be mute. In plantations and copses it may generally be met with, and it will always repay the rambler to take a seat on a stone or the stump of a tree, for a chance of a visit and a performance, for the gold wren iS inquisitive, and will approach near to the stranger, and sing its small soft, sweet song within a few paces of the listener so long as he maintains comparative stolidity. Among the winter visitants the fieldfare must take the lead for the excellence of its notes, and perhaps the. greenfinch should have the next place, not for sweetness, but garrulousness. The fieldfare-thrush (Turdus pilaris) is a handsome bird, with a lively expression and a beautifully dappled breast. It comes with the redwing in October, and leaves us for its Scandinavian breeding grounds some time in April, though both it and the ‘redwing occasionally continue later. The fieldfares go from field to field in vast flocks, preferrmg open flat countries, and not often separating to visit gardens, though I have seen soli- tary individuals of both species shot in gardens near London. Ordinarily when these flocks pass, the only notes heard are the call notes, and these are sufficiently unmelodious to deter one from criticism. *Opimions differ as to the value of its song. Mr. Wood speaks of having kept one in a cage, but he never heard it sing, “if you had seen it you would have supposed it had some deep project im its head, so wise and solemn did it look.” Mr. Blyth says, “its song is a mere chatter.” Bech- stem says, “its song is a mere harsh and disagreeable warble.” Mr. Broderip says, “‘the song is soft and melodious, and the bird sings agreeably in confinement, to which it soon becomes reconciled.” I once had an opportunity of putting these various statements to the test of experiment, and the result was this, that individuals differ considerably in their powers of song; but what is of more importance is this, that there are few bird- fanciers who can distinguish males from the females, and so hen birds are sometimes caged, and hence an unfair verdict upon the musical capabilities of the species. As to caging it, it is the easiest thing in the world, and take care not to give it more food than needful, or it will grow fat and die of heart disease. There are other points of interest in the history of this bird: it has never been known to breed in this country, and in its own Norwegian forests it builds in forks of the fir, and large numbers associate together. Sir Walter Scott makes a strange exception to hig usual accuracy of description, where, in the “Lady of the Lake,” he describes it as breeding in Britain, and making its nest on the ground— ** Beneath the broad and ample bone, That buckled heart to fear unknown ; A feeble and a timorous guest, he fieldfare framed her | lonely nest.” “oar Minstrels of the Winter. Among the rarer birds that visit us in winter, and by cheer- ful notes break the sullen monotony of the dreary season, the silktail, the grosbeak, the snowflake, crossbill, mountain finch, and mountain linnet, may occasionally be seen and heard by observers well situated, and the counties of Surrey and Hants are more often favoured, perhaps, by these rare visitants than any other parts of England. I used, when a boy, to catch in the meadows of my native village of Stepney, meally redpoles and greenfinches in numbers greater than I care now to remember, especially as the remembrance includes not only the catching, but the unhappy fate of those birds ; for we used sometimes to harness them with twine and have them at school with us all day, sometimes hidden in our sleeves, when the dominie’s eyes were to be deceived, and at other times thrust down a boy’s neck when there was opportunity for a trick, or a piece of vengeance. ‘T'raps and cages were made of impossible materials, a dozen or more unhappy prisoners were pent up in cages not large enough for one to move about freely in, and left to fight, or starve, or perish as they might. We are some- times beguiled into a wish that we could be “ boys once more,” but there is no man with a spark of true humanity who would purchase back the joys of boyhood if it were inevitable that we must also be as cruel asa boy; and, alas, it must be said that as a rule, boys are cruel, implacably cruel, and inventively wanton in inflicting cruelty on animals, and from the act de- riving a pleasure so intense, as to prevent reflection and stifle the voice of conscience, which has some force, even in infants. The redpole (Linaria pusilla, Blyth) is both resident and migratory ; in the midland it is common throughout the year, frequenting groves and streams; in other places it ap- pears’ only as a winter visitant, and it is in this character only I have made its acquaintance. The flocks we used to thin made their appearance in December and January, on the site now.occu- pied by the Metropolitan Cemetery and the town which joins it on one side, and which in my “ boyish days” consisted of meadows and market gardens. ‘There we used to see them in vast flocks, shifting about in compact masses, and uttering a pleasing but confused song, as soon as they alighted on the hedgerows and bushes, from which, on the slightest alarm, they would take wing, and in their progress mingle sundry call-notes with small snatches of song. On the other hand, the greenfinch (Lowia chloris, Linn.) has always been known to me as less gregarious in its habits than the redpole, or, indeed, any other of the finches; and though it is a resident, it is only as a winter visitant I have hud opportunities of observing it — sufficiently to become familiar with its habits. It is a beautiful and lively bird, no whit less attractive in habit and song ~ Minstrels of the Winter. | : 25 than the goldfinch or the chaffinch, birds of no mean repute ; but, unfortunately, the call-note of the greenfinch is abominably harsh, and so piercing, that® may be heard at a greater dis- tance than the call of any other bird, and is often useful as a warning to birds of other species, as well as to the individuals of the flocks of half-a-dozen or so which frequent the London gardens during the winter. Thus, in spite of its beimg true that the winter has few sones, I have, I hope, shown that it has some music to cheer the heart of man, and encourage the observer to continue the search for knowledge, even when the opportunities for its ac- quirement are few and far between. Nor is the list of winter song-birds exhausted. The crossbill octasionally appears, in company with the hawfinch, m our pine woods; and these are the two most interesting of all the rarer birds of Britain. Great is my debt to them for amusement freely afforded by their pranks and melody, when they have figured among my household pets, as greatly prized as any. There is the siskin, also rare, but liveliest of the liively—a bird with a merry heart and a vein of comic humour quite in keeping with the queer character of its twitter of a song. And if all these were silent, we should have the sparrow and the robin, friends that fail not, that a hard winter never annihilates, and that seem to be of kindred, morally, with the redoubtable Mark 'Tapley, for they are “‘ jolly” under circumstances the most adverse to ‘merriment. But why mention them together? they are no friends, and the first is. but a chattermg thief, while the other is the bravest, the most individual, independent, jovial, and melodious of all the winter minstrels. No wonder the robin is the most renowned in story, and the most sacred in the household mythology, for his mellow song is like a ray of sun- shine durmg a season of darkness, or, as Hmerson says, speaking of things altogether foreign to this subject, “like music heard out of a workhouse.” | Salt Marshes and their Inhabitants. SALT MARSHES AND THEIR INHABITANTS. BY GEORGE 8. BRADY, M.R.C.S., Secretary to the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club. THERE are in our comfortable land few scenes more dreary and. e depressing than an extensive salt marsh, especially if seen under unfavourable conditions of weather. ‘he monotony of a vast expanse of moorland is broken by undulations of its surface, by the purple flush of heather, or the golden glow of blossoming gorse; and even if there be none of these it be- comes grand rather than dreary in its very immensity, and the ever-varying play of light and shade upon its many-timted vegetation, gives 1t an indescribable charm. But let us change the scene. Picture to yourself a bare expanse of cold, oozy soil, clothed with scanty, stunted vegetation of a dull grey- green hue, with patches of treacherous mud, into which one may very easily sink up to the knees before one has time to invoke the shade of ‘Jack Robinson” (whoever that mysterious worthy may have been); here and there a sullen, shallow, brackish pool, with bottom of black peat or mud; bits of old worm-eaten wreck strewed about, and sinking month by month deeper into the unstable soil; cast off shells of shore-crabs bleaching in the sun, and crunching beneath the infrequent footstep; no sight or sound of life except afew sea- gulls or lapwings circling overhead, and only adding to the “‘eermess” of the scene by their melancholy cry. All this is sufficiently doleful, and with a dull leaden sky, and the breath of a chill sea wind, one has need jof a considerable share of the spirit of Mark Tapley to keep “jolly” under the circumstances. However, to the naturalist there is abundant interest in localities such as these. Though the vegetation is so poor and stunted, we find on closer inspection not a few interesting and peculiar plants, and we are at once struck with the fact that many of them are remarkable for their excessively fleshy and succulent leaves. Perhaps the commonest of all is Glave maritima, @ modest little plant with pretty but inconspicuous pink flowers, or rather, we should scarcely say jlowers, for petals are wanting, and the apparent flower is merely the flesh- coloured calyx. ‘Then there is Salicornia herbacea, with its thick, tumid leaves, which often obtain for it, though incor- rectly, the name of Samphire; the true Samphire (Orithmum maritimum) being essentially a rock-loving plant and growing — sre in the most inaccessible positions, as Shakspeare well new : Salt Marshes and their Inhabitants. - pars “Half way down Hangs one that gathers samphire, dreadful trade : Methinks he seems no bigger than his head.” More showy than these is Aster tripoliwm, which, with its mauve petals and brilliant orange disc, does the best it can to lend some liveliness to its chosen haunts, “ Making a sunshine in a shady place.” Some of the Arenaric, too, we may find (A. marina, or A. pep- loides), not without a quiet beauty of their own, but certainly less attractive than their rarer neighbour the Sea Lavender (Statice limonium), which, with its beautiful spikes of blue and white, is after all not so lovely a flower as its near relative, the common Thrift (Armeria maritima). Thrift flourishes no- where so well as on cliffs overlooking the sea. The Pre- raphaelite artist could scarcely find a more delightful study than a luxuriant bed of this plant carpeting the sides of a rugged rock, its glow of tender crimson intermixed with the beautiful white of the Sea Catchfly (Silene maritima). But we find it likewise growing freely in the salt marsh, on the mountain-top far inland, and under cultivation in our gardens. It seems, indeed, to be one of the most hardy and accom- modating of our indigenous plants. We might much prolong this list of flowering plants peculiar to, or very common inhabitants of, salt marshes, but must dismiss them with the mere mention of the genera Atriplex and Plantago, both of which will commonly be found represented. The Cryptogamic flora, however, deserves further attention. In the spongier parts of the marsh we find the roots and rhizomes of the grasses matted together by a dense growth of Vaucheria, one of the green Algz of a genus which inhabits indiscriminately fresh, brackish, and salt water. The plant puts on many different forms and habits, according to the kind of locality in which it grows, and many of these varieties have been elevated to the rank of species on very insufficient grounds. Vaucheriw is certainly one of the least beautiful, perhaps also one of the least interesting of its class. It consists of branched tubular filaments, filled with a green endochrome, and without articu- lations. The filaments are mostly inextricably matted together, forming a dense cushion, so that the base of the tuft being excluded from the air and buried in mud, becomes yellow and gradually decays, while the upper extremities, continuing their growth, are of a deep bluish-green colour. ‘The only situation in which we have ever seen any member of the genus put forth much pretension to beauty, is on the sides of perpendicular rocks, where it is nourished by the spray of waterfalls or runlets. In such places its green velvet fleece, often many on Salt Marshes and their Inhabitants. yards in extent, disposes itself in numberless tiny crests and undulations, which give an effect of exceeding richness to the rock surface. This plant is V. caspitosa, that of the salt marshes, V. velutina. While speaking of Vaucheria we may briefly allude to the remarkable fact that living animals (Roti- fera) have been repeatedly observed in the interior of the filaments, nor is there much difficulty in accounting for their presence in so unwonted a situation. When the tube of the plant ruptures to allow of the escape of a spore, or from any other cause, the opening so formed would be amply sufficient to allow of the ingress of a rotifer, eitheras an egg or in the mature state, and when once established in the filament there is nothing to prevent the animalcule breeding ad libitum, so that plants have been observed to be completely colonized by Entozoa of this kind. Intermixed with the marsh Vaucheria we often find a species of Oscillatoria, an alea composed of slender, unbranched, tortuous threads, which are faintly marked by close transverse strie. Its filaments are of microscopic dimensions, being only one two-thousandth of an inch in diameter, and when viewed under the microscope they exhibit plainly the peculiar dscillatory and worm-like motions from which the genus derives its name. The origin of these move- ments is not thoroughly understood. They had been supposed to be due~to q@iliary action (a very convenient explanation by the way, of all sorts of anomalous, ill-understood movements), but are more probably referable to some contractility inherent in the tissue of the plant, perhaps analogous to that which we see im the sarcode of Rhizopoda, etc. At all events, no cilia adequate to produce such motions have yet been detected in Oscillatoriz, and the motions themselves are very different in character from those which we know to be caused by ciliary action, such as the rotation of Volvox and the spores of many alge. Iam at a loss to conceive how any observant scientific man could explain these motions (or attempt to explain them), as Dr. Hassell has done, in the following words :—‘ The phe- nomenon of oscillation is due to a certain degree of elasticity belonging to the filaments, which leads to the effort, on their part, whenever, as on being placed for observation on the field of the microscope, must be the case, they are bent or put out of a straight line, to recover that position which is natural to them. ‘This elastic property of the filament currents, almost imperceptible in the liquid in which they are immersed, and perhaps unequal attractions amongst the filaments themselves, are causes amply sufficient to explain any motion which I have ever witnessed amongst the Oscillatoriz, and which motion I cannot help thinking to have been misunderstood and ex- aggerated to such an extent, as to throw around these plants Salt Marshes and their Inhabitants. - 29 an unnecessary degree of mystery.” A very simple observa- tion would have shown Dr. Hassell that these motions take place naturally during the growth of the plant, and while it is free from any of those disturbing causes alluded to. Indeed, it is by these motions only that we can explain the very rapid - spreading of the filaments over a large surface, which pheno- menon may be easily witnessed both under natural and artificial conditions. - The oscillation is seen even more beautifully in a nearly allied genus, Spirulina, which may occasionally be found spreading over decaying leaves and other organic matters in brackish water, or in the sea near high-water mark. The plant itself is also much more elegant than Oscillatoria, con- sisting of a slender filament, twisted closely upon itselfso as to resemble a very delicately threaded screw of a beautifully delicate green tint. Another very curious organism of the same group, and occurring also, though much more rarely, in salt marshes, is Microcoleus anguiformis, which may be described. as consisting of a number of short threads of an Oscillatoria packed together into a bundle and enclosed in a tubular sheath, wide and open at one extremity, pointed and closed at the other. Out of the open extremity the threads protrude and oscillate, or they may even exhibit themselves from a rent in the side of the sheath. _ If we scan closely the bottom of one of the black unin- vitinge pools before-mentioned, we shall probably find that it is marked in patches, or it may be all over, with small closely-set holes, each of which opens at the apex of a slight eminence. The tubes with which these perforations communicate are, in fact, the habitations of a curious Amphipodous crustacean (Corophium longicorne), but whether they are really the work of the Corophium, or are merely taken possession of by the creature, aS a hermit-crab takes possession of a deserted shell, is not so easily decided. I believe that the tubes are mostly excavated by a small annelid. At any rate, whole colonies of annelids may often be found inhabiting them. There is no doubt, however, that the Corophium has the power of burrowing very rapidly into soft mud, and it makes use of this faculty whenever it is alarmed and wishes to conceal itself; probably also when pursuing its prey. But though I have kept specimens in confinement for several days I never could find that they formed any regular tubes like those which we see them inhabiting in their natural haunts. There is a traditional enmity between Corophium and the Annelids, and it is quite pos- sible that it may, after killing the architects, take possession of their burrows. So indeed, Pagurus hasbeen said (but not proved) to do with the molluscan builder of its appropriated habitation. a Salt Marshes and their Inhabitants. Oorophium longicorne is most commonly met with in the mud of brackish ditches, flat sea-shores, and estuarine swamps, but if the following passage from Quatrefages’ “Rambles of a Naturalist ” may be trusted, it would appear to be an animal of migratory habits. “ Towards the end of April these little crustaceans, termed by the fishermen of the coasts of Saintonge, the Pernis, arrive from the open sea in myriads. Guided by their instinct, they come to wage an exterminatmg war against the Annelids, which during the whole winter and early spring have multiplied undisturbed. As the tide rises these voracious hordes are seen moving about in all directions, beating the mud with their long antenne, and pursuing Nerides and Arenicolee to their deepest recesses. When once they discover one of these animals, which are several hundred times larger than them- selves, they combine to attack and devour it, and then resume their.eager chase. This carnage never ceases till the Annelids have almost entirely disappeared. . . . . . Before the close of May the work is completed, and then the Corophium turns upon the molluscs and fishes, which it attacks, whether living or dead. ‘Through the whole of the summer these crus- taceans remain upon the coast, but towards the end of October they all disappear in one night, ready to return the following year.”* To this account we may add that in some places, far removed from tidal influence, where we commonly find these little crustaceans, the migration spoken of cannot possibly take place. Probably the habits of the creature may vary according to the circumstances in which it is placed. Another Amphipodousf crustacean, constantly met with in the pools of salt marshes, is Gammarus locusta ; certainly not an animal of beautiful or interesting aspect. Its dull brown or greenish colour, its wriggling sideways motion when taken out of the water, and its habit (shared by other members of the family) of hanging together in couples, the large male carrying the smaller female about beneath him, holding her by his claws; all these give the creature a certain repulsiveness. | Nevertheless, there are several very interesting points to be observed respecting it. In the first place, this genus (Gam- marus) may be said to be the type of the whole class of crustacea. In it the several parts of crustacean organization are developed in the most symmetrical and orderly way, and may be separated and demonstrated, perhaps, more completely * Quatrefages’ Rambles of a Naturalist on the Coasts of France, Spain, and Sicily, vol. ii., page 312. + The Ldriopthalma, or sessile-eyed crustacea, are sub-divided into Amphipoda and Jsopoda, the former being compressed laterally, and having feet adapted both for swimming and walking; the latter are flattened horizontally, and are specially formed for running. Of the first named group, the common Sand- hopper may be taken as the type; of the latter, the wood-louse or “ Slater.” Salt Marshes and their Inhabitants. - 31 than in any other genus. The segments of the body and their corresponding appendages may be seen very clearly, there being little or nothing of that pressing together and consolidation of several parts which is so constantly exhibited in both the higher andlower orders.* We should scarcely expect to find in an animal of this grade much development of maternal instinct, and yet some observers have noticed such manifestations. The ova of crustacea are mostly attached in a considerable mass, to the abdominal or false feet of the female. In Gammarus (and in some other genera) they remain im situ for some time after having taken on the crustacean form, and even when able to swim freely, they will often hover round the parent in a little cloud, and when any danger threatens, again seek refuge amongst her legs. G. locusta is easily recognized by three conspicuous red spots on each side of the body, upon the ab- dominal segments. Itis a very common species, butis almost confined to-the upper portion of the littoral zone, haunting chiefly shallow tidal pools, and especially those heaps of decaying sea- weed which strew the shore between tide marks. In such situations it may often be found in countless numbers. Its range extends up tidal rivers to the utmost verge of brackish water, and it may even be met with in ditches to which salt water gains access only once or twice in the year. . A species of Sphzroma (S. rugicauda ?) is one of the most generally distributed. crustacea of brackish water, and is, indeed, almost the only representative of the Isopods met with im such places. The species of this and some allied genera (Armadillidium, Porcellio, etc.) have the curious habit of rolling themselves into a little ball when handled, remaining motionless while in this position. The terrestrial species have obtained for this reason the trivial name of “ pill beetles.”? It is remark- able that some of these animals are able to live indifferently, either’in the deep sea or on dry ground removed from any marine influence. ‘Thus we have taken Porcellio scaber abun- dantly on dry sandy hedge-banks, and likewise from the nets of trawlers im fifteen fathoms water. Such a fact is very curious and suggestive, quite as much so as many of the hypothetical cases put by Mr. Darwin in his work on the * Origin of Species,’ and which have been so much ridiculed by the opponents of his theory. Among the Entomostraca of salt-marshes we find some very interesting species. One of the bivalved forms (Cyprideis torosa) was first described by Professor T. Rupert Jones, as a fossil species occurring in the Tertiary strata. Mr. Jones likewise took it living in ditches near Gravesend, and it has since been * For an account of the structure of the skeleton of a typical Crustacean, vide INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER, vol. iii., page 38. 2 Salt Marshes and their Inhabitants. found abundantly in both fresh and brackish waters in the counties of Somerset, Durham, and Northumberland.* When it does occur it is generally in prodigious numbers; a fact accounted for by the unusually large number of ova which it bears. The peculiar ringed and serrated hairs which occur on the limbs of this genus and of Cythere are very beautiful and interesting objects for the microscope. Cyprideis has no power of swimming, its motions being restricted to crawling; but some of the natatory Entomostraca are found in similar places. These are chiefly of the same family to which the common and well-known Cyclops quadri- corns belongs. The males of these animals have the right antenna very strongly developed, and provided about the centre with a hinge-joint, so that it can be flexed and used as a clasp- ing organ. In some species, to render the apparatus still more effectual, there is on each side of the hinge a plate armed with spines or serratures, by which the grasp must be greatly strengthened. The females may be seen toward the end of summer and autumn, carrying about with them, attached to the first seement of the abdomen, numbers of elongated cylindrical, or fusiform bodies of a yellowish or deep red colour. These are the “spermatic tubes,’ which have been fixed in that situation by the male ; a curious mode of fecundation, which so far as we know is peculiar to this family of Entomostraca. The highest, or stalk-eyed order of Crustacea, is represented in brackish water by three species—Palemon varians, Mysis vulgaris, and the common shrimp (Crangon vulgaris). The last named is of almost universal occurrence, and calls for no special remark here; the other two species are comparatively rare. The Palemon is much smaller than its congener, P. serratus (the common edible.prawn), and also quite deficient in the beautifully variegated colouring which adorns that species. Like the rest of its genus, it is very timid and very agile, so that, except with a tolerably large net, it is difficult to catch it when in clear water. In muddy places the best way of getting specimens is to force the net into the mud, so as to enclose a considerable quantity; then on washing it a number of the prawns will probably remain behind. It is curious that although these creatures seem so much frightened at the sight of a net, they will, if one’s hand is put quickly into the water and kept there for a minute or two, come boldly up to it, hover- ing about, and feeling it all over with their long antennz. A crowd of them may be thus collected in a very short time, but the slightest movement makes them dart off rapidly, and Ihave always found it impossible to catch one in this way, even though - * Vide a paper by the present writer in Annals and Magazine of Natural History, January, 1864; also in INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER, vol. i. p. 454, Salt Marshes and their Inhabitants. - 30 they willsometimes come andbask almost inthe palm of thehand ; probably the warmth of the hand is the attracting influence. The species of Mysis, or ‘‘Opposum shrimp,” mentioned above, living as it does both in fresh and strongly brackish water, brings before us a very interesting problem, and one by no means easy of accurate solution, yet concerning which we have some few data which may guide us to a right result. We find that most fresh-water genera possess also some represen- tatives inhabiting the sea. And it at once strikes us that it must be something more than a merely fortuitous coincidence by which animals so far separated in their habits agree so closely in structure as to be included in the same genus. If Mr. Darwin is right, as we believe he is, in supposing that at least all genera of the same order are descendedfrom onecommon ancestor, we must seek for an explanation of the present state of things by looking backward to some remote period when the progenitors of the existent fresh water and marine forms were not separated by the impassable barriers which now divide them. We extract the following interesting remarks on this subject from Messrs. Spence Bate, and Westwood’s History of the British Sessile-eyed Crustacea (vol. 1. p. 390). With refer- ence to the facts which we have mentioned, these authors say : “The key may be suggested by the interesting discoveries of Cedarstrém, Olofson, and Widigrew, in the lakes of Vetter and ‘Vener, in the south of Sweden, of which an account has been published by Lovén. These two inland fresh-water lakes are situated on high ground, and have the surface of their waters 300 feet above the level of the Baltic, whereas the bottom is 120 feet below such level. In these lakes (which appear to have been lifted up with the gradual uprising of the country) have been found several genera and species of Crustacea, three of which are Amphipoda, which are affirmed to be identical with marine ones, namely, Gammaracanthus loricatus (Sabine, Ross, Kréyer), Pontoporeia affinis (Lindstrém), and Gammarus cancelloides (Gerstfeldt). The first is now only known to exist in the Arctic seas, the second in the Baltic, and the last was found in Lake Baikal, in Central Asia. It is therefore sug- gested by Loven that when the land was raisedso as to convert these waters from marine bays into inland lakes, these marine species were retained within the basins, the waters of which have since been changed, through the agency of springs, into fresh-water; and with the gradual transfer of the water the habits of the animals have also changed gradually, and that without any outward alteration of form, Professor Lovén thinks that there is sufficient evidence to show that this change in the conditions of these lakes must have taken place during the great glacial period, at a time when the animals now found in VOL, V.—NO. I. D 4 Optical Ghosts. it (and which are known at this day to inhabit only the extreme north) could have lived in the same latitude as the south of Sweden. The evidence of these fresh-water lakes suggests that similar changes in the relative position of sea and land may have been the cause of our having fresh-water Crustacea nearly allied to marine species in our rivers and inland streams.” Higher in the scale of life the inhabitants of salt marshes are few and far between ; a few sticklebacks and an occasional gasteropodous mollusc of some common species will almost exhaust the list. We should not, however, pass entirely with- out mention a very interesting nudibranchiate mollusc, which has been found in a few places. This is Alderia modesta, a pretty little species of a greenish colour, living chiefly among the tufts of Vaucheria, upon which it feeds. Where it occurs at all it is mostly in great abundance ; but the only British localities hitherto recorded are Lougher Marsh, near Swansea, a marsh near Cork, and Hylton Dene, near Sunderland. Associated with it may sometimes be found a little black slug of the genus Limapontia. Salt marshes such as these, whose inhabitants have been the subjects of our paper, are perhaps the nearest analogues which our islands can now exhibit of those extensive lagoons which, under the fostering influences of an almost tropical climate, supported the dense forests of the Carboniferous period. It has been inferred trom certain animal remains found in the coal strata, that those lagoons must have been, in some cases at least, brackish; but considering the widely different aquatic conditions under which it has been shown that the same species may exist, too great caution can scarcely be exercised in the application of any evidence derived from fossil remains. OPTICAL GHOSTS. Tue old mode of obtaining spectral illusions by means of con- cave mirrors presented many difficulties, which were practically insuperable when the images were required to be on a large scale, and to be comparable in sharpness and apparent density with actual and similar objects seen at the same time. ‘Lately these difficulties have been wonderfully overcome, as the “Patent Ghosts” exhibited at the Polytechnic, and elsewhere, abundantly testify. So great has been the popularity of these exhibitions that, now the mystery is out, and an explanation is offered by Mr. Dircks to the public, the book* purporting to reveal the secret would have been widely welcomed had it * The Ghost, as ote in the Spectre Drama, Popularly T)lustrating the Marvellous Optical Illusions, called the Dircksian Phantasmagoria, by Henry Dircks, C.E. Shaw, Optical Ghosts. : 30 been better written, and confined to its legitimate subject. Mr. Dircks complains of others, and probably with reason ; but about quarrels of this kind the public care little, and when they pay their money for the litle book entitled ‘‘'The Ghost as Produced in the Spectre Drama, by Henry Dircks,. Civil Engineer,” they do not expect to find nearly all of it devoted to a partially mtelligible account of grievances with which they have nothing to do. The amount of explanation given will prove provokingly small, and, to those unacquainted with optics, of little use; while those who are familiar with that science did not want it at all. Mr. Dircks’ merit in the patent ghost business appears to consist in the fact that he saw how to utilize the long-known principles involved in the neutral tmt reflector, used by microscopists as a substitute for the more expensive camera lucida. In this instrument a little plate of thin glass is placed so that the eye looks at it at an angle of 45°, and receives the reflection of the image which the microscope forms of the object on the stage. Thus the eye is affected, not quite so strongly, but just in the same way as if it had looked straight down the microscope tube; and if a piece of white paper is held below the reflector, the object will appear projected upon it, and the eye can, in addition to. receiving the reflection, look through the glass and see the hand and pencil by which the outline is traced. To make this kind of action plainer, let a few simple experiments be performed, and let the reader remember that the angle of mcidence is always equal to the angle of reflec- tion, and that objects seen in a looking-glass seem just as far behind it as they are actually before it. If any of our young readers do not distinctly understand the angle of incidence question, they can easily resolve it with marbles or bagatelle balls. Let them place a box, with square sides, on the table, and make a chalk lime, so as to form a perpendicular to one of its sides, and fallmg on the centre. Then, if a marble is bowled against the box so as to strike it slantingly on one side of the perpendicular, it will be thrown back in a similar slant on the other side of the perpendicular. The rays of light behave like the marble or bagatelle ball in this respect. For our first experiment, take a hand looking-glass, and see your face in it; then incline the bottom of the glass away from you till your face is quite. ost, and then your body, or hand, if im the way, will appear plamly. You lose sight of the reflection of your face because the angle of the rays from it which fall upon the glass is such that the resulting angle of reflection sends them away from you. You see your body, or hand, because the angle of their cident rays is such that the resulting angle of reflection carries the image straight to your 36 Optical Ghosts. eyes. Old writers were well aware of the fact that a plane mirror could be so arranged that a person looking at it should not see himself, but see something else, which might be behind a screen, and quite out of his natural view. It is, indeed, very easy to make a looking-glass show you objects quite out of your line of vision, and one of the facets of a moderate-sized diamond will easily enable you to see by reflection any object in a room, when you appear only to be looking at the finger that carries the ring in which it is set. Having made a few experiments with the looking-glass, take a pane of window glass, or, what is better if you have it, a piece of plate glass, the surface of which is more true, and hold it upright on the table near a window. A few inches in front of it place any small object on the table; a lady’s cotton reel will do extremely well. Stand upright with your back to the window, but leave room for the light to fall freely on the top of the reel. Look slantingly down at the glass, and you will see the image of the reel reflected by its surface, and apparently as far behind as it really is before. The top on which the light falls will be briliant, and the part that is in the shade will be reflected in shadow. Vary the experiment by placing a second reel, exactly like the first, as much behind the glass as the other is placed in front of it. You then have two reels presented to your eye, one actual, and the other spectral, and you can, as Mr. Dircks remarks of a similar case, so arrange the objects, and your position, that the image reflected from the surface of the glass shall exactly correspond with the outlines of the real reel seen through the glass. If you put any small article on the top of the reel in front of the glass, or some one else puts a similar object on the top of the reel behind the glass, the optical effects will be the same. Now make a third experiment. Puta box, or thick book, in front of you, so that you cannot see the reel, when placed on the table just under its edge. Then hold the glass a little way off, and upright as before, so that you see it from top to bottom. You may then obtain a reflected image of the reel, which the book conceals, and if a strong light were thrown upon it, the image would be as sharp, distinct, and apparently solid as the reality. : Thus this kind of optical ghost is very easily made, and Mr. Dircks suggests a few effective tricks. We have not dwelt at any length upon verbal explanations, because everybody can make the simple experiments suggested, and they will explain the matter much better than a lengthened essay could effect. We ought, however, to add, that Messrs. Horne and Thornthwaite supply a portable apparatus, by which the © Dircksian ghosts can be easily and strikingly shown. ’ = [2 _— Optical Ghosts. 37 Mr. J. H. Brown, acting upon another set of optical principles, offers us “Ghost’s Everywhere, and of any Colour.”* We need not stay to comment on the explanatory part of this volume, but proceed to the pictures, which are drawnand coloured so as to excite similar images on the retina in accidental colours. Our readers have no doubt often tried the experiment of sticking coloured wafers on a sheet of white paper, holding them a strong light, and staring at them fixedly for a few seconds. If this is done, and the eye then taken off the wafer, and turned on to the white paper, the wafers’ image will appear sharp and distinct, but in another colour. A red wafer will look green (or blue and yellow combined), a blue one orange (or red and yellow combined), a yellow one purple (or blue and red combined), and wafers of composite hues will be affected in an analogous way. ‘These “spectral,” “ acci- dental,” or ‘ complementary” colours—for they are known under these three appellations—appear bright to the eye in proportion to its sensitiveness to the original colour, to the strength of the illumination, dnd to the steadiness with which the original object has been contemplated. Mr. Brown finds the time occupied in counting twenty, or about a quarter of a minute, sufficient to impress his figures upon most eyes, if the plates are well lit up. Has directions are to look steadily, for the time specified, at a dot or asterisk to be found in each plate, “the plate being well illuminated by either artificial or day light. Then turning the eyes to the ceiling, the wall, or the sky, or, better still, to a white sheet hung on the wall of a darkened room (not totally dark), and looking rather steadily at one point, the spectre will soon begin to make its appearance, increasing in intensity, and then gradually vanishing, to reappear and again vanish.” The Brownian spectres depend upon the tendency of strong impressions to remain a little while upon the eye, and to reappear in accidental colours. The plates are certainly very effective, and well designed for the purpose; but we should recommend an avoidance of needless horrors in future series. The grotesque and the beautiful will both work just as vividly as the ghastly, and several objects in the present series could not be judiciously introduced to the notice of boys and girls whose disposition was nervous, or whose superstitious feelings had been excited by injudicious nursery tales. Mr. Brown’s direction to enlarge the spectral appear- ance by looking for it on a white sheet, or wall, some distance * Spectropia, or Surprising Spectral Illusions, showing Ghosts Everywhere and of any Colour, by J. H. Brown. First series, with sixteen illustrations Griffiths and Co. 38 The Ruins of Copan. off, is very ingenious, and brings us back to the microscopic neutral tint reflector with which we started. This re- flector enables drawings to be made much larger than the actual image which the microscope transmits to the eye. Suppose, for example, the image represented an insect one inch long, and the draughtsman tried to sketch it with a long pencil on a sheet of paper placed on the floor, he would have to make a picture on the floor as big as an object must be to equal in apparent size a far smaller object nearer the eye. This may be made plain by a diagram, and plainer by an experi- ment. ‘Take, for example, a sixpence, and hold it at sucha distance from the eye that its diameter exactly equals that of a large picture across the room. Then the sixpence, at so many inches, and fractions of an inch, from the eye, looks as broad as the great picture so many feet off. Fora second illustration, hold the sixpence steadily m front of the eye, about six or eight imches off, and let some one else stand by the wall and make a mark corresponding with the circular space the sixpence hides. In this case the great circle, so many feet or yards off, is equivalent to the little sixpence at six or eight inches off. In the instance of the image reflected by the neutral tint glass used with the microscope the pencil was employed to trace out an outline that would be equivalent to the reflected image seen much closer, and in Mr. Brown’s enlarged ghosts, the optical image takes the size of his plates, as they appear at a convenient distance from the eye, but they seem as big as they would look if drawn on a larger scale on the wall on which they are fancied to appear. THE RUINS OF COPAN. In our number for May, 1863, we gave a beautiful view of an enormous sculptured monolith from the pre-incarial ruins of Tia Huanaco in Bolivia, formerly Upper Peru, accompanied by a paper, in which Mr. Bollaert collected together the very little that is known concerning this kind of worls. The whole subject of American antiquities is under a dense cloud. We can only make rude guesses concerning the dates of the remarkable remains, or of the extinct and for- gotten people by whom they were executed. It is how- ever of importance that accurate representations should be preserved of the principal objects of interest, and for this purpose photography is of great value, and fortunately admits of reproduction at avery moderate price. The Tia Huanaco ruins form a portion of numerous works, extending over a con- siderable geographical area, and all bearing evidence of haying The Ruins of Copan. natal 39 been produced under similar conditions of knowledge, senti- ment, and skill. They certainly could not have belonged to a barbarous age, because they evince a considerable command of mechanical powers, and show an advanced though highly con- ventional style of art. Messrs. Smith, Beck, and Beck have recently made a valuable addition to the means of study at the disposal of archeologists, by publishing a highly interesting series of stereoscopic slides, from photographs taken by Mr. Albert Sal- vin, of the ruins of Copan, Honduras. They comprise richly sculptured stones, that no doubt formed portions of consider- able buildings, bearing in their hieroglyphic ornamentation a strong likeness to our Tia Huanaco plate. A careful mspection of the series will show that the artistic skill possessed by the unknown workers in an unknown age was very considerable ; and we cannot doubt that some system of mythology, and some facts of curious history lie hid in allegorical representations, which we have no key to unlock. Mr. Salvin’s series of slides are well worth study, and though we are not disposed to waste time in mere conjectures, we cannot relinquish the hope that the clue to this American mystery may yet be found out. We shall not attempt a detailed description of these remarkable objects; but they all belong to the Tia Huanaco type; and we agree with Mr. Salvin im considering that they were associated with the mythology of the people by whom they were wrought. The stone in which they are executed, isa close-grain porphyry, and the preservation of the sculpture has enabled the photographic apparatus to produce excellent and highly interesting copies, on which the labours of the archeologist may not be exerted im vain. No. 7 of the series represents a very remarkable monolith, 1% feet high. A face, powerfully sculptured upon it, looks much more like a portrait than a conventional figure; the’ features bear some resemblance to the Mongolian type. No. 20 is an admirable, though conventional, jaguar’s head, equalling in force of expression any analogous Huropean work. No. 13 is a circular stone, supposed to be sacrificial. It has a rounded surface, and a border of twisted or cable pattern. There are in all twenty-four slides, accompanied by a descriptive pamphlet. ag Havometer, corvected 40 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE KEW OBSERVATORY. EatrruDpE 51° 28" 6" w., Loverrune O 1S’ 47" w. BE G. M. WHIPPLE. Reduced to mesn of dsy. Temperature of Arr. Ato aw, 2.30PM, andirx, NF respectively. _ | Caleulsted [ow = fae oe == = a 7 i. | le/eles jefe] 2 = Sc 2 = | co 2S z= = es = | = s = = | & | 2 ey oc alsiz Els es leo! & == ‘ of Ge ) &Blel=i=- [sFls =o Direction of Wind. = 2 = BP = so ae == ei 2 | a laistfEsslz la = S| |2)| 2 )e2e/4 | & | ie al de == > Pated inckes. a | TG | ick =) | » de Oct.1 | 29-250) 541/526 5-408) 575 507) 63 8, 7, 7 SW, W, W by S. 2 29-788 517490 91-361) 555 | 482 7310,10,10 SW by W,SW, SW. 3 | 29°877 569 53-7, 96-453) 598 [5 $910, 10,10 SW, SW by 8, SW by 8. _. {| — | —]— | ea lara 5 = = (29952, 486 470, 95,337) 553 | 376, 17-7] 7, 10,1 WSW, §, SSE. 29-946 46-5 373 “73, 240| 522 (372150, 0, 4, 9) NW by W, NE, ESE. . 7, 403, 17910,10,10 E by 8, E by N, E (29550 577 346 90-436 633 536 97) 5, 3,10 EEE 99558 51-4443, 90/319; 563 |493 75 29619 57S 489 “75)-359) 613 | 468 145) : F ; = 533503 20-377| 580 47610463, 1 S,SE,SEby E (29326 522.485 $8,354] 577 494, $310, 9, 1 —-S&, SSW, S by W. 29630 559 50-4 83 378) 61-1 |500,111 6, 7, 2 $ 578 | 46 29576 52-9 53-0 100-413) 578 490, 5510,10,10 ——,—. (29959 53-0 497) 89 369 581/486 953, 4, 5 SW,SW,SWbyS. (3005 533,465 “75 331) 587 482/105 6, 2 7 W, WSW, —. aa as By ee eS be (30065 555543 96-4232, 597 547) 5010, 10,10 SW, SW, SW. 30064 53-4529 98-412 59-1 532 4910,10,10 SW by S, NNW, — 30132 541529 6-412 601 af 9910, 7, 7 = 307117 S552 51-1 87|-387, 612 51-0, 102 10, 5, 4. SW by W, WswW, — | 83305) 556 426130 1, 1, 2 WNW, Nw, —. | 555 32-9 22610, 10,1 —. 53-7 | 335) 202)... , S23 37-6 147) 7, 9 i 9 494 34614910, 9, 1 415 128 6,10, 2 Sby W, W by S, SW. — - NE by E, NE. BSBRSRREEEEBERSRREGKE So maH me 543 |422 121/10,10, 2 8S by W, S by W, SW. 53-5 | 42-8 107)10, 10, S$ by E, 3, W. 508 | 393,110 1, 3, O SW by W,SW, SW by S To obtain the Barometric pressure at the sea-level these numbers must be imereased by “037 inch. Observations ai the Kew Obsercnui Meicoro TOURLY MOVIMIN mont, Day, 1;/2);8/)4 How, 12 | 47! al 1g] 20 L | 16) 10] 14) 26 2 | 19) Lal ial 24 4% ) 12) dal 16) 18 4 | 10) 19] 16) 17 5 | 14) 11) 1a} 20 4 © | 10) 10) 19] 28 7 | 16) 9] 97] a7 4 | 18) al gal 20 ) | 16) Va) gal ga 'L | aa} ag} wal 1 12 | a6) isl gal iw | 8) dl 26 16 2 | 19] 18] 23} 9 8} 4a} tol gal y | 10} 14] gb] 4 G} 10) 28] 6 i 6 4) 19] 22 Al m fs 6) 11] 26) 8 5 8] 11) a6] 4 M b] 14) gi) 2 1 4) 10) Bo] 8 1a 0} 11) 26) 2 otal Daily ( |gysigze/5gajaa8 Moye 6 A | +) 4) 9 2 1] 2 G| 2 1) 2 11 4i Bi 6 LO) & 10; 6 LO) 4 8) 2 Hl 64 a 66 GO) 6 6) 2 bo A\ 6 fh) 66 Gg) 66 7” 6 6) UOC 116) 92 407/166)186/408 832) 664) HOU 1] 10 14] 18 17) 16 1} O] 14) 0} 10) 18 14) 1] 16) 6] 18] 17 12] 7) 12) 8) 10) Bo 18) 6 10) Bi 16) Vai 8) 7) Gi 1 1s) 1s 10, 8 8} 62] 1p) 18 | 6! oO 2] gal 1s 10; 7 7 8) 28) 21 12; 10/ 6} 1] 26] 16 6g) 68} 68) 20) «TI §O9}12'7/281)191/828)408 NN mt et te 1A0 se oes ee = —eoeRnm» ws - — mene i) OF MII WIND (IN MILA) AS RNCORDED DY ROBINSON'S ANT MOMHDNR—Oov, 1408, Hourly Means, 10 dha 116 12'7 140 10) 146 182 163 12'1 11'2 42 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE ~ KEW OBSERVATORY. LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” N., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” w. - ra 1863. Reduced to mean of day. |Temperatureof Air.) At9304.m., 2°30P.m., and5 P.M. aS ee eee eee —— respectively. | Caleulatea. 3 Hy = op 2 het a Ls ea eee » 3 4 : ores = : > Rain- Day 2h, S lates ©) walker 2S wa readil of Bete | st | a eeee Teer, er 9°30 Oe ee (2 ela eles ele ee |. on se /eielg > a BS ag Direction of Wind. om 5 me ai op | be Baar Spm ae eee toten price Seg She 83 ba ete fe te ee ee = A 2 a |e roe Rt Bec Pe ba : | Ble |a - inches. | sk 3 inch.) é a inches Nov. 1 bee | col asa (GARB, ome een 003 pa eee 28° 998, 43-9 39'5 86, ‘260, 48-4 | 39°6, 88) 8,10, 9SWby W,SW by W, WSW.| -777 » 3. | 29°761) 47-8) 446} -89) 310, 52°5 | 37-8) 14°7\10, 10, 10) SW, SW, SW. 056 » 4 | 30°002) 56:0) 50°4) -83 378 59°4 | 42:8) 16'6/10, 10,10 SW by W, WSW, SW byS.| 151 » 5 | 80°161) 54-9) 50°5) +86) 880) 57°6 | 52°8| 48/10, 10, 10\SW by W, SW by W, SW.| -121 » 6 |80'481 41-9) 361) 82) 230, 45:1 |137°3| 7-8 5, 5, 4 NE by E, ESE, —. ‘044 » 7 |80'155| 48'S, 48°3) -98/°352 53-4: | 34-7| 18°7/10, 10,10) S by W, SW by W, W. | ‘000 SS ioe, Ut ae. | eve | weveyloawe- | Ook (Soe ag sist “aa 127 » 9 | 80°228) 43°5/ 31°9) -67|°198| 47-7 | 41-2) 6-5] 1, 4, NE, NE by E, NE. 151 » 10 | 29-753 » 11 | 29:376 » 12 | 29°939 » 13 | 30-269 14 | 30°262) 9 41:0| 37°3| -88/*240) 45-7 | 244/901-3110, 7, 3| SW, SW, W by N. 385) 35'S, -91/-228| 43-0 | 29°9|13-1/10, 9, 2INE by E, NE by NN byW,| - 39°9| 344-82) -217| 447 | 380-414-310, 2, 6| N by E, N, N by W. 41-1) 37°2| -87|'239| 47-0 | 28°1|18°9| 9, 10, 10] SW by W, SSW, SW by S. 47-1) 447) +92) °311) 49°9 | 28°1) 21°8/10, 10,10} SW, WSW, W by S. PMD cle Oh soe AP eh a alos aes ted 81) OA BI” Si oe ‘000 » 16 | 307144) 50°7| 49°4, +96, °366, 54°6 | 46°0| 8°6)10,10, 4 SW, SW, SW. ‘002 » 17 | 30155) 49°9| 45:0, 84/314) 53°3 | 47°9| 54/10, 10, 10 W, W by 8, SW. - » 18 | 30:234) 47°7| 43°3| -86)°296, 50-0 | 46:9) 3:1] 8, 9,10 S, 8, S by W. “00 » 19 | 30194] 46:8) 43-0, -88 °293 50:0 | 43°7| 6:3) 9,10, 10 —, SW, SW. 000 » 20 | 307119) 46°7| 43°6} -90,°299, 50°7 |42°2) 8'5110, 3, 1 SSW, 8, S. “006 9 21 | 29°678) 50°7| 480) -91/ ‘348; 56°3 | 38:2/18'1) 4, 6, 10 SSE, 8, S. “00€ feet A es SFr PRD ean men 8 alfe 8 RT = “17C » 23 | 29°856| 480) 45:0) +90) 314) 52°1 | 41°7/10°4) 1, 10,10 Sw, SW by 8, “Sw. "02: » 24 | 29°870) 52°4) 52:1) 99) ‘401; 55:0 | 44°5) 10°50, 10, 10 8, Sw, SW by W. 15 » 25 | 30:075) 52°2) 49°9) +92) 372) 55°8 |50°6) 5-2) 9, 7,10 SSE, 8 by 5, 8 by E. “026 » 26 | 30°348, 49°6| 48°6| +97|°356; 55:8 | 44°1) 11°7/10, 10, 10 SE, SE by BE, SE. “006 » 27 | 30°338) 46-6) 43'9) +91) 302) 49°5 | 46-2) 3-310, 7,10 SE, SE, ESE, “006 », 28 |30°293| 42°6| 38'1) *85| 247) 46:0 | 42:9 81 9, 8, 8 SE, ESE, SE by E. 006 *) SS eee | 446 288158)... ” ie: “00 » 8 | 80117) 365) 35:2 ‘95|*223' 40°2 | 28-1) 12-1 10, "%, 5 I, NNE, NNE. ‘O1E th Mourn” {| 30-032! 466 43-0, -89 “31 2991. | * To obtain the Barometric pressure at the sea-level these numbers must be increased by ‘037 inch. A8 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. 0 SOEIEEEEES SIS HOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES) AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON’S ANEMOMETER, —NovEMBER, 1863, . { Day. |1|2/3|/4/5|6| 7] 8] 9 |10]11/19/13/14/15/16/17/ 18119] 20 21 22 23 | 24! 95 26) 27 28 | 29| 30 ade Hour. | 12 | 49] 18) 24| 201 19 Bs) Teas o)-.5| 5 4) 9) 12) 4) 8) 1) 5) 20) 9) 9} 11] 4] q1l 6 4 9°8 3 | 20| 80 23) 24] 15] 4) 1) 9} 2a} a} | | 2} 5 4) 841] of 9| 8/10 20| 9) 7] a] al al el 4 100 2 | 15] 25] 20| 25] 15) 7| 2] 11) 90| 2 6) 3} 4} 4) 13} 14, 12] 8) 4} 1118) 9! si 7 4) sl 6 al 10°3 3 | 15) 20| 14] 24] 14} 5} 2} sl a0] al | 6! 4l 61 5) a1/ 44| 9| -4| 4) 11) 18} 5) 7] 7) 2) gt BF 3) | 9:0 13] 18) 17) 25) 16) 11) 5) 9! 22) Ol108) 5) 3] 8i 5) si 14} iol 6 al 419] 5) 5] 8] 2! 10) Ji 9a) Poe J 6 14) 16| 13} 21] 15) 7} 3} 9) 17) 1 4) 4) 7) 5) 9) 18) 12; 5) 6 9! 18) 6} 5} 8] 4/10 7 10187) 92 4) 7 | 13) 12; 10) 19) 15) 7 4) 13) 19) oO 4) 3} 5} 5}. 91 15). 10}. 8) 10) 15, 15) 7 5} 7} 9} 7 Bl 5! =|) ~|=6(90 g | 18] 14) 7 22) 14) 7 6) 15) 19) 1 8) 2) 4) 5) 12) 14) 12)- 1) 9] 11) 15] 7} 7) Jo | a i Gti: CE O'S g | 12) 10) 18) 19) 17] 8] 4) 14) 18] 3 4| 4) 6] 4| 10) 14) 5) 4° 8] 13) 13] 3) 9! 10] 7 si 6 2 | 88 10 | 27) 15| 14] 21) 16) 10) 5) 138/17) 7 5] 4| 5] 5] 91 16] 6 1 8 16 17; 8 7 11) 8 10) 9] 2 101 (41 22) 15) 18) 23) 19) 10) 7 10) 23] 13) 8| 13) 5) 7 %| 15) 19} 13] 6 10) 20 22] 11| 9) 15) 121 Jo 11) 3 \ 12'8 ig | 24) 15) 11/ 20) 19) 7 7 10) 21) 12) 10} 15) 9} 5] 7| 19) 16} 8} 6| 10 23' 19) 14! 11] 11] 11} 8} 8| 3 | 121 (al 20} 20) 16) 22) 22) 6) 11) 17). 23) 10) 12) 18/ 11]. 3| 7| 10] 19] 16] 8} 10) 21) 21) 13] 13 17| 12) 7° 8/44 13°8 g | 19) 16) 15} 22) 20) 3] 9 16) 20) 7 10) 13] 8} 5! 11) 11| 19) 16] 10) 5 23° 20) 14) 8} 12) 10} 8| 8} 20! 13°0 | g | 20) 14) 19] 18) 23) 4) 6 17/19) 3 9} 13] 8} 4) 8) 9) 16) 13] 5) 6! 27, 19 12] 9] 191 8) 5 6 | 119 4 | L7| 17 20) 19) 22) 2 718} 12} 7; 9} 9} 7] 6| 5] 8] 12) 14] 8|- 5! 31/13] 19! aa} 44 10 6 4 116 | zn | 12) 18) 18| 23) 20) 1/ 7 21) 9] 8| 9) 6% 4} 6] 6] 12] 11] 5] 7 38\ 19) 14] 12 12) 9)-2) 6 61) 112 A 6 9| 19) 17| 26) 19| 1) 9) 17 5 6; <5; 7| 2) 71 4} Lo; 22! 7! 5B} 27! 13] qo) 9 16) 9/5 Sr Sos 10:2 i) 6} 22; 16} 25) 18} 1) 7/17) 4 5} 4) 7) 2) 7] 5] 12) 10) 8) 2 28 13! 9/8] 12; 10) -6| 4 9°9 | 8 7| 34) 16] 26) 14/ Oo} 6| 22) 2 4) 4| 6) 2) 9} 8] 11} 12] 9} 4! 25) 12) 6] 9! 10! 12! 10: 10 10°7 g | 21) 35) 16) 25] 15) 1) 9 28) 8 6). 5) 5] 8) 6) 10/9} 10) 38) 5} 23) 12] 8] 9| 742i of 3 10°6 ides 14} 30| 18} 26} 9] o| 9] 25) 3 6, 7) 5) 5) 5) 11) 10) 12) 5) 2! Is} 12) 4] ~9}- 131-15] yI -3 10°6 (a1 15) 22) 20; 25) 5) 0} 9| 25) 4) 3) 4) 5} 8} 5/11) 7} 13} 9 4} 20; 8} 5/12! 8| 14) gf 7 103 12 | 22) 22) 19/21! 2) 1). 7 20) 2 3} 2) 8] 7} 6].10) 5} 5) 4) 8f 17) 9f of iol 7 9) 7g 88 S99 | 8 YS Pe SS Se | ee SS J | ES] SJ I OF OOO OO OO | | | | KE SE I Total Daily ( |369)477 389/541|383|105 145 371/346] 290 158)127)118/142)228|314/254/142/138)445 377\211|207|246/203'187)/145| 345 10°3 Move- ‘ 44 ~ Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE KEW OBSERVATORY. LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” N., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” w. a 1863. Reduced to mean of day. Temperature of Air. At 9°30 A.nt., 2.30 p.m., and 5P.M., ———eEeEeEe————————————————EeE——EE respectively. Calculated. | 5 x» a 3 # Sa -1S Se, a 5 5 28 oO g, ES me} ee) el ela le lee eela | 2s Month. os =n ae ze bles Aa at | Brg Direction of Wind, Sie if |F is |ge |8s/a] £8 2 = ° 50 o a oo =e al Re oe Vesa BA = tee =| A 2 ze |g als (3 (gable q o as} oO e= TABLE SHOWING THE MEAN VELOCITY OF THE WIND FOR EACH HOUR OF THE DAY IN THE DIFFERENT MONTHS OF THE YEAR 1863 (IN MILES PER HOUR). A. M. P. M, Hour, 12 to 1 to 2 to3 to 4. to 5 to 6 to 7 to8 to 9 to 10 to llto12 tol to2 to8 to4 to5 to6 to7 to8 to 9 tol0 toll tol2 #Mean. Jan. ,..,..{17°1 |16°7 17;2 {18:0 |17°4 17 0[17°4|17 7 |17°3117-0 17-6 |17-1 | 18°5|18°2|17°5/ 15-7] 16-0] 14-7 115-0 15°1|15-3|15°3 |16°7 |15 6 168 Feb.......| 8:8] 87} 8:0] 7:7] 82] 8-5! 8-7 8°7| 85 |10-0| 11-6 |12-2 | 13°2/13-7 |13-0] 11-9] 11-2 9°7| 9810-1) 9-6} 9-2) 9-9] 8-9 10:0 March ...! '7'8| 8:1] 81] 81] 86| 7:3| 87] 9:4 101 | 11°4:) 13-1 |14-1 | 14-4} 15-0] 14°4| 14-5 |13-1]166| 9-4 9'1| 8:0) 87) 8-5) 7-5 10°6 April. ....} 8:2) 76] 69] 7-1] 68] 7-4] 8-3 {10:8 | 12-2 13°4) 13°6 |15-0 | 15°7 | 15:9} 15°7 | 15-2] 14-7] 13-7 11-1 (10°1| 9°0| 8:4) 7-6) 7-5 10:9 May...... 81) 75) 76) 76! 7-8| 7-4] 9-3|19-2|12-6]19°5 13°8 |15:0 | 15°5|16°1 | 15°4) 15°3/15°3| 13-7 |12-410-8| 9:5 97/102) 8-4 11-4 June... 8:3) 72) 71] 65| 7-1) 7-6] 8-4) 9:3/10:5|10°8111-5 12°6 | 13°5 | 14°0 | 13°3/ 12°6| 13'4/12°0|11-3| 9-9] 8-4) 8-3 88) 81 99 July......| 4°8) 4:1] 42] 4°83) 44] 5-1] 63! 7-6 8'9| 9'8/10°5|10'5 | 10°3)10'1}10'1] 99/105) 9:3) 98 75| 69] 65) 62) 50 75 August...) 7°3| 7-4] 7°3] 68] 76] 7-6| 95|11-°6 12°7 | 13°7| 14-9 | 15-7 | 16:0} 16-1} 15°5| 15:2/143/ 13-3 131/101) 86) 82| 89) 7:4 115 Sept......) 73} 72] 71] 67] 6-8] 6.7] 68! 89110-6 12°3 | 13°3|18°5 | 14°5 | 14-0 | 13°5| 13-1|11-7/10.3! 9-2) 9-3) 9-0} 8-1) 83) 77 9'8 Oct. ......] 88] 86} 92} 9:1} 9:1] 9:2/10-:0/11-4 11°6 | 12°7 | 14-0} 13'9 | 13-6 | 18-2) 13°3}12:1|11:2| 9:5! 8-6 9-9 | 91) 92) 95! 84 10-7 Noy.......]| 9°8/10:0/10:3] 9:0] 9:4] 9:2! 9:0] 9:3 8'8|10°1| 12°8 |12°1 | 13°8/13-:0/11-9/11-6/11-2| 10-2! 9:9 10-7 106 OS es {eee ce | ees |g | geen | ee ee Mean.....| 9:0] 86] 8:6] 8:5| 8:8 87 9:5 107 |11-2 12'1| 13-4 13-9 145 |14°5 14:0| 18-4] 13°0| 11-6 109/104, 96/94/97) 88 || 11-0 ae 88 10:3 Dee. ...,..]11'3 |10°7 |10°8 |11°6 [12-0 |11-4./11-2 11°7 | 10'9| 11'8| 13°8 | 14°4 | 15-4] 15-0 | 14°8/13°9 | 13-2] 12°5 |19- 125 14 111 /11-9/11'8 125 We Never See the Stars. AT WE NEVER SEE THE STARS. TaKeE a man out into the fields on a calm, quiet night, when the moon is absent, the air clear, and as he looks upward, the “ floor of heaven” seems ‘inlaid with patines of bright gold.” Let him see Vega beaming, with steady lustre, like a benevolent sapphire eye keeping watch over the world; Capella fitfully flashing ; the Bear careering round the silent pole; Orion with his diamond belt; and Sirius blazing in such splendour as to vindicate his title as “‘ the leader of the host of heaven,’ and leave no wonder that the old Egyptians worshipped him as a sacred orb, and formed the sloping sides of their pyramids that his beams should fall straight and full upon them when he reached his highest pomt in the skies that over-arched their wondrous land. let our observer gaze steadily as the smaller stars come out from their homes in the deep unfathom- able blue, until, between what the eye sees, and what the mind imagines, the broad fields of space are all alive with light, and, from every point of the compass, stars innumerable seem to gleam. When the eye has thus been filled with brightness, we could scarcely make a more startling assertion than is conveyed in the words, ‘‘ we never see the stars,” and yet no statement can be more true. What then, do we see? The answer is, we see certain rays of light which, in popular phraseology, left the celestial orbs some time ago: years ago we know in some in- stances, centuries perhaps in others, and thousands of years, it may be, in still other cases, and possibly millions might be required to state the time at which, in the remote past, that force was exercised, or vibration excited, by which we recognize the existence of the most distant of those suns whose beams are able to affect our sight. The nearest star is, however, too far off for his light-rays to bring to us a picture of his face. In the moon we see, with the unaided eye, certain indications of the form and character of the surface of our satellite. In the planets, minute discs, in which all features have vanished, pro- claim by the low power that makes them distinctly visible, com- parative nearness to ourselves ; but of the stars another story must be told. They are not like the moon, partly decipherable by the unassisted eye; not like the planets, surrendering more or less of the secret of their form to the glasses of the telescope— they defy alike the eye of the mortal, and the grandest optical machinery which he has been able to invent. ‘They do indeed, in fine weather, look like small regular discs in a telescope, but increasing the power of the eye-piece does not enlarge their apparent diameters as it does that of nearer objects, and in the most perfect instruments they look the least. We see their 48 We Never See the Stars. lustre, we note the colour of their light; Betelguese is a topaz, Rigel more of a sapphire, Antares is flushed, and flashes with blood red; and when the telescope has separated the so-called “‘ double stars,’’ we have contrasts of green, orange, blue, white, grey, etc., as Mr. Webb’s admirable papers tell; but whether their surfaces are rugged and mountainous, smooth, with. plains or seas, diversified in outline, or monotonous in uniformity, we can only guess; for, in spite of all our efforts, we never see the stars. Ordinary objects reveal to us their forms by the effects of light, shade, and colour. They shine with borrowed, and often with feebly reflected ight, so that by walking away, we soon lose sight of them altogether. Objects that are more luminous and brighter, show their forms at greater distances, and we often see things negatively that would be unnoticed by their positive effect. Thusa thin rod against a clear sky is seen a long way off, because we are conscious that the sky brightness is, as it were, cut through by some dark thread. But we may pass from all those cases in which light comes to us as a revealer of form, to others, in which it says, “‘ I am hght,” and nothing more. All “Intellectual Observers” know Longfellow’s exquisite poem beginning— “The day is done, and the darkness Falls from the wings of light, As a feather is wafted downward From an eagle in its flight ;” and as they repeat the last two lnes— . “We see the lights of the village Gleam through the rain and the mist,” they will recall an experience common to all travellers, the memory of which may bring with it either “a feeling of sadness which the soul cannot resist,” or pleasing associations to which the affections cling. These “lights of the village” may help to teach us why “‘ we never see the stars.” They come to us like good angels across the moor, or fen, but their faces are hidden from our distant gaze. We do not see the lamp or candle from which they emanate until we are close to it, although we may know what it is, and exclaim with Portia: “ How far that little candle throws its beams! So shines a good deed in a naughty world.” Unless we are tolerably near we do not even see the shape of the flame, and as soon as we have lost that shape, it is, on a small scale, an imitation of the distant stars. The distance at which objects become invisible, although their light is still seen, varies with different eyes. Without light no man sees; but some men see with less light and much fur- — ther than others, and long after the longest sighted man has lost all perception of bodily shape, the hawk tribe appear to see it We Never. See the Stars. 49 acutely, so that Tennyson was a true exponent of nature when _ he depicted the eagle in his home— “He clasps the crag with hooked hands : Close. to the sun in lonely lands, Ring’d with the azure world he stands. he wrinkled sea beneath him crawls ; He watches from his mountain walls, And lke a thunderbolt he falls.’’ When the sea waves are dwindled down to wrinkles by their distance, the king of birds still perceives upon their shore, objects that would be quite invisible to man; but there is no reason to believe that even the eye of the eagle has ever “seen the stars.” The bird, however, may teach us that with perfect visual organs, remoteness would not prevent the dis- covery of form, but merely reduce its apparent size. A distant body must have a certain magnitude, in order that its shape may be visible to any eye, with any particular instrument. The larger the body, the greater the distance at which its shape can be seen, under similar and proportionate illumination, but as the distance increases, the apparent size of any body is rapidly reduced, in conformity with a well-known. physical law, so that the mightiest celestial orbs may dwindle through remoteness to the merest specks of light which the eye can discern, and by still further remoteness, completely elude the power of the largest telescope.* We know that the sun’s diameter 1s, according to the best calculations, 850,100 miles, and his distance, by recent deter- mination, abcut 91,328,600 miles, nearly four hundred times that of the moon. Now the enormous face of the sun, more than one hundred times broader than that of our earth, is eclipsed by a pin’s head held near the eye, and it only appears the size of a very small disc held a foot off. Could we pass from our present abode to the more distant planets of the solar system, the great luminary would become smaller and smaller in appear- ance; and from Neptune, “30? times the mean distance of the earth from the sun,”+} it would look like a mere point of light that would require considerable magnifying to raise into a disc. Mr. Breen tells us that with a power of 150 we can see the appearance of a disc in Neptune “‘if we consider it atten- tively,” and the body which thus requires enlarging to the extent of 150 diameters, or 22,500 times superficially, in * An easy mode of illustrating these facts, is to cut a disc, one inch in diameter, and a triangle (with each side equal to the diameter of the circle), of white paper ; stick them against a wall, and walk backwards until the eye fails to see which is the circle and which is the triangle, although two patches of white light will still be discerned. + Breen’sPlanetary Worlds, page 248. VOL. V.—NO. I. ry 50 We Never See the Stars. order to be seen at all, is 108 times as big as our earth ;* its diameter is 35,000 miles, that of the earth being 7912 miles. Under ordinary circumstances we do not, without magnify- ing them, see the real dises of the great planets, otherwise we should need no telescope to teach us that Venus goes through phases like the moon.t When Venus is favourably situated she is a highly lustrous body, that looks the same shape as Jupiter, but if the telescope be directed to both, one shows a round face, and the other may appear as a thin crescent of most glorious light. Although the planets are too far off to exhibit real discs to the naked eye, still the being so near im proportion to their size is one reason why they shine with a steadier light, and do not twinkle like the stars. Humboldt and others thought that when light, from one portion of their discs, was for a moment intercepted and then permitted to pass through the air, they did not flicker like stars, because hght from other portions of their discs filled up the vacancy that was occasioned, and kept their lustre steadily in view. This cannot be the entire reason of stellar scintillation, as some stars do it much more than others; but whatever action such discs may have, it must lessen, and finally vanish as their distance is increased; and we must not forget that Neptune, the remotest known member of our system, although 2,864,000,000 miles from the sun, is near him, and near us, when compared with the nearest of the stars. Spectrum analysis bids fair to teach us what the stars are made of, and we may learn more and more of their wondrous ways. Still we may never behold their faces, nor our descendants after us, to the end of time. We place, however, no limits to the future possibilities of science, but the present generation of men, and their long posterity after them, may be compelled to wait for immortal vision before they will really see the stars. * The dimensions and distance of Neptune, and other planets, will have to be . revised, to meet the present views of the size and distance of the sun, but this will make no difference in the argument. + This remark is generally true. Had it been otherwise it would not have been necessary to wait for Galileo with his telescope, in order to learn the fact that Venus exhibits phases like the moon. Mr. Webb, in his excellent work, Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes, says, speaking of Venus when near the earth and exhibiting a sharp and thin form :—‘This crescent has been seen even with the naked eye in the sky of Chili, and with a dark glass in Persia.” Diffi- cult objects become more yisible when the mind knows exactly what the eye ought to see, and the eye is practised in looking for it. An easy experiment will illustrate this. Let any one not accustomed to it, look for e Lyre, which to the naked eye lies close to Vega. The first night of the attempt the small star may not be distinguished, afterwards it will become plainer, and if it is looked at fifty or one hundred times in the course of a month or two, it will seem to have moved further off, and the observer will wonder why the separation did not strike him at first. A similar apparent increase of distance takes place by continued observa- tion of close double stars through a telescope. Green Tce. ‘ 5] GREEN ICE. BY HENRY J. SLACK, F.G.S., Member of the Microscopical Society of London. Ir is sometimes worth while to remark upon a subject that may appear common-place, and I am induced to say a few words upon the often-noticed phenomenon of ice being coloured green by its enclosing confervoid vegetation, simply upon the ground that as it has lately interested me, it may interest other constant readers of the InrunnnctuaL Osserver. During the severe frost of January, I was walking, on a clear sunny day, im company with a friend, when our attention was drawn to the brilliant green tint of sundry masses of ice scattered over the frozen surface and about the margin of a pond, on the Lower Heath, Hampstead, near the queer looking edifice dedi- cated to the water gods of the place. A man was amusing himself with a pickaxe breaking up the ice near one end of the pond, and scattering the fragments about him. Some he sent whizzing along the frozen water, and its surface was soon variegated by masses that gleamed with a beautiful beryl tint. Taking up some of these pieces I was struck with the small quantity of green matter that sufficed to tinge a considerable block, and as the cold was intense, I put a fragment in the pocket of a large great coat, just wrapped in a piece of paper, and thus carried it home nearly dry. Placed in a white por- celain vessel in my study it soon thawed, and at the bottom of the water was a little green stuff, which microscopic examination showed to consist of a minute oscillatoria, and some other conferva of which I don’t know the name. These little plants seemed quite alive, as a high power detected no sign of decay in their bluish green chlorophyll; but their hfe processes must have been comparatively quiescent, as they remained for some days at the bottom of the vessel. Had they been active I pre- sume they would have evolved enough air-bubbles to have caused them to float. A few days afterwards I went for a fresh supply, and found every piece of ice I examined very irregular in structure, and full of cavities I took for air-bubbles. ) t wslandicus. i we, Orula patula. PALATES CF MOLLU THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER. MARCH, 1864. THE DENTITION OF BRITISH MOLLUSCA. BY THE REV. G. ROWE, M.A. (With a Tinted Plate.) By way of preface, it will be well to remind the reader that the class Mollusca admits of a general subdivision into Acepha- lous and Hncephalous animals, the latter alone possessing heads. And although it by no means follows that they should therefore possess teeth, or that their headless relations should not have these useful instruments, yet it is among the Hncephala, or Gasteropods, that we find the subjects of our present observa- tions. These creatures are also, for the most part, occupants of a single shell, such as that of the whelk and the limpet, but some, as the land-snails and the beautiful nudibranchs of the ocean, are naked. The teeth of a Gasteropod do not answer to the ordinary signification of the term. They are organs of trituration and abrasion indeed, but are not used for the purposes of holding or biting. Many of the shell-less mollusks: have one or more horny mandibles ; and in some instances these are replaced, and even supplemented, by buccal plates armed with spines. Such isthe case with the genus Natica, and with Cyprea Europea. And Woodward states, that many of the flesh-eaters have a spiny collar at the end of their flexible proboscis. These afford the means of holding the food or prey, while, what I have here termed teeth, are employed in rasping it into the mouth. The so-called teeth are silicious plates of extreme tenuity, often beautifully outlined and curved, and frequently serrated at their edges. There are generally a great number of them, some- times many thousands, in one animal ; and they are rooted in a thin membrane, named, from its form and position, the dental or lingual ribbon. As this lingual band forms a very in- teresting object for the microscope, and only requires a little VOL. V.—NO. II. G 68 The Dentition of British Mollusca. practice for its preparation, I will briefly describe the process, in the hope that some of my younger readers may be induced by its easiness to attempt it. | There need be no lack of subjects for examination. Peri- winkles, whelks, and limpets are to be obtained in most places, even inland; but if these sea “fish” are not to. be had, then every ditch will yield Limnei and Planorbes in abundance, or, as a last resource, the common snails and slugs of the garden and the lane must serve the turn. ‘The apparatus may be the simplest possible. One or two ordinary needles and as many surgical ones may be fixed into cedar pencil-sticks, or, better still, into the neat little bone holders used by ladies for their crochet-hooks. A few sharp pins will be required to hold down the parts. A common pocket-lens must be mounted so as to slide on an upright rod (a piece of soft wood stuck into a flat bit of lead will answer every purpose), for the dis- section necessitates some magnifying power and both hands must be free. It will also be well to have a pair of small curved- pointed scissors, and a pair of forceps with claw-ends. They will be wanted for the larger mollusks; but in many instances the needles only can be used, on account of the great delicacy of the operation. The prime requisites are patience and light fingers ; and assuming that the observer possesses both, let us now proceed to work. Select for a first example a good-sized periwinkle. If he is alive, scald him for a second, and then you will not be haunted by any qualms about vivisection ; but it will not matter for the nonce if your subject has been boiled and even salted. Break the shell with a smart blow, and dis- engaging the animal, pin him down with his foot or walking- surface underneath. Above, and in front, there will then be seen a loosish flap of skin; that is the mantle, and on turning it back, it will disclose the rostrwm or muzzle. It has two little fleshy tentacles at the sides (corresponding to the horns of a snail), and a small nearly circular aperture at the extremity, which should be turned to the right. Now, cautiously insert the curved point of the scissors and lay open the cavity of the mouth, but take especial care not to injure its floor, where it is paved with the tongue and its wondrous armature of teeth, If they are in the way, pin back the cut edges, and, with the needles, lift out the lingual band. It comes away readily, and as all the teeth are reflexed it may be drawn out forwards without risk of injuring them. It will probably require cleaning, which is most conveniently managed under trans- — mitted light. In some of the minuter examples, indeed, the whole process must be so done. ‘l’o effect this, get a cigar-box ; turn it on one side and make a clean hole in the upper one, half an inch in diameter. A small mirror, or piece of plain ‘The Dentition of British Mollusca. 69 glass blackened at the back, is to be placed inside at such an angle as to reflect the light through the hole. The object is then laid on a glass slide over the opening and cleaned with a camel-hair brush and distilled water. _ Only a portion of the tongue is in use at any one time. This is nearly flat and is held in its place by projections of the membrane on either side. The posterior part descends ob- liquely behind the mouth, and is formed into a cylinder by being enclosed in a membranous tube, which peels off like the finger of a glove turned inside out, and allows the whole of the lingual ribbon to be displayed as a flat strap. If particles of tissue adhere to it, they may be carefully removed by the brush, or the curved needle. But being very delicate, the tongue is often liable to be torn, if held meanwhile by a hard point; for this purpose a bristle is a very handy tool. The front of the tongue is in some cases folded at its end, so that the part most in use is at a short distance from the extremity. ‘This happens especially with the carnivorous species which bore through the shells of their prey. ‘The teeth on this portion are frequently worn down and. broken, and as it is essential to the well-being of the animal to have good teeth, the reserve so bountifnlly provided is brought gradually forward, the worn part being at the same time absorbed. ‘Thus a continually new rasping surface is secured. Quite at the hinder end of the tongue the teeth become rapidly imperfect and rudimental; but it admits of doubt whether they are in the act of growing, since the lingual band would appear to be originally prepared of such a length as to last effective as long as its owner requires it. In our periwinkle, the spare portion will be found beautifully coiled up in the body of the animal on the right side. That of the com- mon limpet passes backwards and downwards, doubling on itself in its course, and is more than twice as long as the mollusk. The tongue itself is divided for convenience of description into longitudinal areas, which are crossed by the rows of teeth. Of the former there are five, distinguishable by the different. characters of the teeth they bear; but they are not always all present. The teeth are consequently named the median, the lateral, and the wncini, although the latter are not necessarily more hooked than the others. The areas bearing the wneini have been called plewre. Since each row is a repetition of all the rest, the system of teeth admits of easy representation by a numerical formula, in which, when the wncini are very nume- rous, they are indicated by the sign oo (infinity), and the others by the proper figure. Thus, o. 5. 1.5. o, which represents the system in the genus T'rochus, signifies that each row con- sists of one median, flanked on both sides by five lateral teeth, and these again bya large number of wncini. When only 70 The Dentition of British Mollusca. three areas are found, the outer ones are to be considered as the pleure, masmuch as there is not unfrequently a manifest division in the membrane between them and the lateral areas ; but never, as far as I have observed, between the latter and the median region. ‘This arrangement is typical of a large class, having the formula 3.1.3, which embraces genera so dissimilar as Cyprea, Aporrhais,and Natica, together with the vegetable feed- ing Littorinide, and the operculated land and fresh water mol- lusks. Again, when only two areas exist, it seems probable that this is caused by the absence of the central ones, and the teeth should therefore be termed uneini. Such is the case with the Bullide and the allied bare-gilled family of the Doride; and this conjecture is confirmed by the fact, that in Cylichna and its nearest allies, which are transition genera, a minute central tooth is: present. This subject has been investigated by several naturalists ; abroad, by Lovén and Troschel, and at home by Gray and Woodward, with a view to obtaining criteria for a syste- matic arrangement of Gasteropodous Mollusca. Up to the present time, however, their labours have only partially suc- ceeded. ‘The union under one formula of so many creatures widely differing in shell, anatomy, and habits, clearly indicates, that if the lingual ribbon contains generic characters, they have not yet been ascertained. At the same time, it does present differences which may offer collateral evidence in cases difficult of discrimination. It does not help us to separate carnivorous from phytophagous animals; but it seems possible to make use of it as a mark between species. For, in all the examples I have examined, there is a distinct difference between the tongues even of the most closely allied. Chiton discrepans is hard to tell from C. fascicularis by the outer parts alone; but the tongues are clearly distinct. Patella athletica may, it is said, be similarly divided from P. vulgata. The two British species of Acmea afford remarkable differences. Tvrochus ziziphinus and the nearly allied 7’. granulatus is another case in point. On the other hand, the occurrence in 7’. helicinus of six laterals is one of the reasons which suggest a change in its generic name ; and great lingual dissimilarity demands the separation of our two fresh-water Ancyli. In this way supposed varieties may be possibly decided. If, for instance, the lingual ribbon of the many subdivisions of Intorina rudis is constant in its characters, they cannot be received as species. Again, the position of the fluviatile Paludinide in close proximity to the sea-loving Jntorinide is confirmed by the likeness of their dentition; while Neritina fluviatilis, "with the formula oo. 3. 1. 3. o, shows an approach to the genus T’rochus. All the land and fresh-water mollusks without opercula ‘The Dentition of British Mollusca. ; 71 show a great similarity in their dentition. Their tongues are “like a tesselated pavement,” so regular are their numerous teeth. These are mostly rectangular in ground-plan, and armed with a single (or sometimes triple) recurved point. They are often so very minute, that their characters are barely discernible, even by the aid of the best lenses. When this happens, we may avail ourselves of the rule established by Mr. W. Thomson, who first in England directed attention to this subject. He found that the form of the whole transverse row corresponds to certain peculiarities in the teeth, to such an extent as to be an almost equally safe guide in questions of affinity. Thus, each row passes straight across the tongue in Planorbis albus and vortex, is curved in Limax marginatus, and suddenly bent in Zonites cellarius. Whence it may be inferred that the teeth are all similar in cases like the first named, and gradually or suddenly differ in the others res- pectively. It is among the in-operculated members of the order Pul- monifera that we meet with the most astonishing instances of large numbers of teeth. Imax mazimus possesses 27,000, distributed through 180 rows of 160 each. Helix pomatia has 21,000; and its comparatively dwarfed congener, H. obvoluta, no less than 15,000. When it is remembered that these estimates refer to series of forms, often elegantly curved and sculptured, the total area sustaining them not measuring at the utmost more than half an inch long and one-eighth broad, we must be filled with admiration at the marvellous prodigality of the great creative power thus bestowed upon such a small part of the organization of an humble snail. And when I ask my readers to examine these things for themselves under the microscope, I venture to think that the varied and beautiful outlines and serried ranks of these delicate amber-coloured atomies will be viewed with a delight whose depth and intensity the observers of nature can alone rightly measure. The examples figured in the plate are drawn from original preparations,* and represent the principal types. And in the following table I have placed the genera known to me under their respective formule, as some guide to the student of these objects. The group charac- terized by the numbers 1.1.1 will be noticed as the best, the animals being all flesh-eaters, with the exception of, per- haps, Lamellaria. The generic names are those employed by Forbes and Hanley, in their British Mollusca. * Those of Lamellaria, Doris, Goniodoris, and Eolis papillosa are from pre- parations kindly lent me by Mr. Brady, York. w 72 Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint. 1 1 1 Dentalium, Lamellaria, Murex, Purpura, Nassa, Buccinum, Fusus. 3 1 3 Calyptreide, Paludinide, Litorinide, Aporrhais, Natica, Velutima, Tricho- tropis, Cyprea, Ovula, Cyclostoma. 3 0 3 Acmea. 1 0 1 Mangelia, Philine (Cylichna?), Bulla, Go- niodoris. co 0 o Scalaria, Doris. 0 1 0 Kolis. ; co 1 co Many of the section In-operculata. me ede 6 Phiton. > § 0 § 8S Patella. o 5 1 5 o Fissurella, Haliotis, Trochus. co 6 1 6 o ‘Trochus (Margarita) helicinus. co 4 1 4 o KEmarginula. co. 3..1 3. co» Nerina % AUTOMATIC WEIGHING OF GOLD AND SILVER PLANCHETS AT THE ROYAL MINT. BY JOSEPH NEWTON.. (With an Illustration.) Tue marvellous progress which has been made in mechanical science in this country during the last half century is nowhere more practically demonstrated than in the new weighing-room of the Royal Mint. That handsomely-appointed apartment of the money-making establishment contains twelve small machines, each one the counterpart of its neighbour, and which, for delicacy of finish and beauty of minute constructive detail, — may be said to equal, if not to excel, any mechanical apparatus owing its existence to the conception and the fingers of man. They appear, indeed, when in motion to be gifted with intelli- gence, and they certainly constitute the nearest approach to thinking machines that have as yet been contrived. The task of the automatic weighing..machines of the Mint, is, to receive each individual planchet or disc of the precious metal produced by the laminating mills and cutting-out presses, and to answer the question as to whether or not those planchets are of the legal weight, which qualifies them for conversion into current coins of the realm. This highly important duty the automatons perform with a degree of speed, regularity, and accuracy impossible of achievement by direct human agency. No matter what the extent of skill, care, and aptitude the mani- | LT THE AUTOMATIC WEIGHING BALANCE AS USED AT THE ROYAL MINT, Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint, ey ed pulator might bring to the work, he could not—as has been over and over again proved—weigh planchets of gold or silver to the extreme nicety which the Mint machines have been made to reach. Through their media the infallible and beautiful law of gravitation is enlisted into the service of her Majesty’s coiners, and the results obtained thereby are as unfailingly constant and exact as is the action of that law. Before proceeding to describe more closely the principle and the peculiarities of construction of the automatic balances, it may not be improper to offer a few remarks upon the great importance to the Mint and to the community at large, of the accurate weighing, or “sizing,” as the ancient term stands, of pieces of gold or silver intended for transfor- mation into the circulating medium. From the very earliest period in the annals of minting, its consequence and value have been recognized. Even before coins were in use at all in the British islands, and when slips or cuttings of the pre- cious metals represented money, the sizing of those slips was necessarily attended to, and that with as much care and exacti- tude as the rude appliances of the time admitted. It was usual at that remote era—which was immediately preceded by the age of barter—for the inhabitants of Britain to go to market, or out shopping, laden with sufficient metal for effecting their intended purchases, and to carry with them instruments for dividing, and scales and weights for weighing it. This primitive process was found to be inconvenient, uncertain, and very troublesome, and soon the expedient was resorted to of having pieces of metal cut and weighed before gomg out marketing. These clippings were at once the prototypes of, and the substitutes for, coins. At length, and owing to frauds practised by buyers and sellers, both in respect of the weighing, and the debasement of the metallic symbols, it became necessary to interpose the authority of the law, and thus to regulate and systematize the rude and unshapely currency. Then appeared stamps or im- pressions, emblems of that authority, and guarantees of the weight and fineness of the metallic dumps upon which they were imprinted. ‘To these marks of genuineness were subsequently added the names of the authorized moneyers by whom they were struck or stamped. The next step in the march of im- provement was to decorate—as well as the artists of the day could accomplish that operation—the pieces of metal with re- presentations of the monarch, prince, or prelate under whose sanction they were issued. Dates, legends, and inscriptions followed in process of time, but, as has been shown, the accurate sizing or weighing of the metals was always a subject of grave consideration, : “J Co + Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint. Without pushing historical research further into the misty atmosphere of the far-off past, it may be stated that every Act of Parliament since the Parliamentary institution itself came into being, and every Royal Proclamation passed and promul- gated in England, for the purpose of legalizing coins of the realm, has defined with great precision, though sometimes rather verbosely, the standard weight, and the standard degree of fineness, of each denomination of such coins. The law makers and the monarch of the kingdom haye, however, inya- riably recognized the impossibility of producing coins in large quantities of the precise legal standards of weight and of fine- ness. A certain variation above and below those standards has always been permitted, and this specifically as a ‘‘ remedy” for imperfection of workmanship. All Acts of Parliament and other legal documents having reference to the manufacture of money, are explicit as to the limits of this remedy. The gradual improvements effected from time to time in minting machmery and appliances, and increasing chemical knowledge, have allowed of the periodical reduction of the remedy, and it would no doubt be curious to trace out and note the changes and modifications which have at yarious epochs been effected in this direction. At present such is not the purpose we have in view, interesting and instructive as the results of such a search might prove. It must suffice, therefore, to say that, notwithstand- ing all the mechanical and other advantages which the existing Royal Mint possesses over mints of the olden time, it has not been able to dispense with a “remedy” for imperfection of workmanship. The varying density of the metals used in the manufacture of coins is one substantial reason why perfect uniformity m the weight of individual pieces cannot be obtained. The machinery of that establishment is throughout excellent, and millions of planchets of gold and of silver are continually being yielded by it, which, if measured individually by means of the finest micrometer gauge, would not exhibit the most infinitesimal differ- ence of size. Placed ina delicately-poised balance, they would, on the contrary, display material differences ; some would be found above, and others below, the strictly legal and true stan- dard weight. Absolute uniformity of weight among coins is a ‘ Will-o’- the wisp,” which no one who understands anything of the art of coining would think of pursuing. ‘The mere clasping of a dise of gold between the thumb and finger on a summer’s day will alter the weight of that disc, as the test balances of the Mint bear evidence, andchanges of temperature will produce a similar result. It is not essential to examine further into the minute and r Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint. ae | almost occult causes which affect the weight of coms; in- equalities will exist between planchets of gold and silver though cut mathematically of the same dimensions, and all that can be - done is to minimize the variations. Probably this object has been accomplished more completely in the British Mint than in any other mint in the world, and the legal “remedy” for imperfect manipulation is smaller there than in any other exist- ing money manufactory. The standard of fineness is a point to which reference has been made, and upon which it may be well to add a few further observations. A parallel difficulty exists im obtaining uniformity in this direction. Standard gold should contain twenty-two parts of fine gold and two parts of alloy. The mixture is made at the Mint with scrupulous care; but, in spite of this, the assayer on testing the resulting planchets will find diversity of quality. The law allows and legalizes this diversity, to a very limited extent it is true, but it does allow it. Sovereigns and half sovereigns issued from the Tower Hill establishment are sought after and used by the jewellers of all nations in the manufacture of trinkets, for they are aware that there is more certainty of those pieces of money being very near to standard than there is of the gold coms of any other country. Hence they know precisely how much alloy to add to molten coins, in order to reduce the mass to the low standard of jeweller’s gold. Thus, in both a mechanical and chemical sense, it may be fairly asserted that the Royal Mint is in advance of all other mints. It is to its mechanical excellence that we desire more espe- cially to attract the attention of our readers; and, as we commenced by observing, this is nowhere more convincingly illustrated than in the fitments of the weighing-room. The weighing balances reject all planchets which are “out of remedy,” that is, all which are above or below the lines of variation drawn by legal enactment, and they accept for coinage all that are within those lines. Before advancing to the de- scription of their mode of action in achieving this desideratum, we shall introduce in a tabulated form the standard weight, the legal maximum weight, the legal minimum weight, the “remedy,” and the dimensions of every denomination of coin circulating in Great Britain and the principal colonies. Such a table, which is given in the following page, will, it is hoped, be of practical value, as it will certainly conduce to a clearer conception of the ingeniously constructed automaton balances, and of the nature of their almost judicial offices :— 73 Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint. Tabular View of Weights and Dimensions of British Coins. GOLD COINS. Ee . Standard | Legal max.} Legal min.| Legal | Diam.of| Thickness Denomination of Coin. weight. | weight. weight. |‘remedy.’} coin. of coin. Se ee EE ee gprs. pts. grs. pts. grs. pts. | grs. pts. | inches. inches, Sovereign .........06 123:274 | 123531 | 123-017 | 0:256.| 0°875 | 0°0476 Half-sovereign ...... 61°637 61°765 61508 | 07128 | 0755 | 0:0312 SILVER COINS.* Standard | Legal max. | Legal min.| Legal | Diam.of} Thickness Denomination of Coin. weight. weight. weight. |‘remedy.’| coin. of coin. SS ee ee | gprs. pts. grs. pts. grs. pts. | ers. pts.| inches. inches. BIDE cheeks snacens 174545 | 175°272 | 173°818 | 0°727 | 1:166 | 0:0625 PN. Zaisesis aves see 87°272 87'636 86:909 | 0:363 | 0:916 | 0:0500 Sixpence ......000..5 43°636 43°818 43°454 | 0181 | 0°755 | 0:0370 Threepence_........: 21°818 21:909 21-727 | 0090 | 0°666 | 0:0270 Twopence (Maundy)| 14545 | 14606 | 14-484] 0060 | 0546 | 0:0230 Penny Ge, eee) 7272 7-303 7°242 | 0:030 | 0:422 | 0:0202 BRONZE COINS. Standard | Legal max. | Legal satan’ Legal | Diam.of | Thickness Denomination of Coin. | “Weight, weight, weight. } remedy.’| coin. of coin. prs. pts. prs. pts. ers. pts. | grs. pts.| inches, inches. Penny .....ssc0000--.] 145°833 | 148°749 | 142-916 | 2°916 | 1:200 | 00555 Halfpenny .........++ 87°500 89°230 85°750 | 1:750 | 1:000 | 0:0512 Farthing ............ 43°750 44:626 42675 | 0:075 | 0°800 | 0:0384 To the foregoing tables, which deal with the whole of the coinage of Great Britain as at present issued from the Mint, it may not be improper to append similar particulars in reference to the copper coins, which are fast disappearing from circulation. A comparison between the new bronze and the old copper pieces of money, of which such a course permits, the institution will exhibit palpably the economy of metal in the constitution of the former :— OLD COPPER COINAGE. Denomination of Coin, | Seandard | Legal mar. | Legal min. | Legal ,| Diam-of| Tackness grs. pts. prs. pts. ars. pts. | grs. pts.| inches, inches. Penny .....ssse000+--| 291666 | 298°958 | 284375 | 7:291 | 1°338 0:0937 Halfpenny ,........... 145'0 38 | 149°479 | 142°187 | 3645 | 1104 00781 Farthing ............| 72°916 74°739 71:093 | 1:822 | 0875 00555 4 Crowns, half-crowns, and groats, are omitted from this list, because none | have been struck at the Mint for many years past, and they may therefore be deemed obsolete. Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint. 79 It will be observed that the legal remedy allowed upon gold coins is very small, that that upon silver coins is somewhat larger, whilst the legal remedy upon bronze and copper money permits a rather wide range above and below the actual standard. The rule at the Mint, however, in each case, is to divide the actual differences as nearly equally as possible between the two extremes. The result is that, on large quan- tities of coin, a theoretical standard is attained. Silver and bronze coins are merely tokens of value, and individual varia- tions between the particular coins of each respective denomina- tion are of comparatively little consequence. With regard to gold the matter is differently based. The sovereign and the half-sovereign are intrinsically and nominally of the same respective value that their names imply, and they cease to become legal tenders when by abrasion they fall below a certain weight. The weight at which the sovereign may be refused by the Bank of England is gers. 122°500 pts. Thus the allowance for the wear and tear of circulation below the minimum weight of grs. 123017 pts. at which it may have been issued from the Mint is ‘517, or little more than halfa grain. The lowest point of weight at which a half-sovereign ceases to be a legal tender is grs. 61'255 pts., its minimum weight at the Mint having been, as shown above, grs. 61°508 pts. It is not often that the Bank or any individual is so scrupulously exact as to draw the line of demarcation at the precise points indi- cated, though the law would justify such a proceeding. Having thus endeavoured to explain the origin and to demonstrate the importance of the weighing operation in the art of coining, we may proceed further to state that, prior to the year 1851, the whole of the gold and silver planchets produced at the Royal Mint were weighed by workmen employed there, and known as “‘sizers.”” ‘These occupied a large room in the establishment, from which currents of air which might disturb their balances were carefully excluded, and they were each supplied with a tiny pair of scales and weights, resembling somewhat those used by the chemist and druggist in the dis- pensation of their “medicinal gums.” ‘To each sizer was apportioned a certain quantity of planchets, and he became the arbiter of their destiny. The “too heavy” pieces were thrown on one side, to be reduced in some cases by filing, and then re-weighed, and the “too light’? pieces on the other side, for relegation to the melting-house. The medium planchets were passed into a receptacle placed near at hand to catch them. Constant practice induced among the sizers a certain amount of accuracy in their operations. But, towards the close of a day’s work it not unfrequently happened that their eyes and fingers grew tired of watching and moving, and a reckless admixture 80 Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint. of “too heavy,” “ too light,” and ‘“ medium” planchets was the consequence. In 1851 the knell of this imperfect system of weighing was sounded. The Company of Moneyers, who had long enjoyed the profitable privilege of coining the moneys of the realm, and who traced the existence of predecessors filling similar posts back to | the days of the Heptarchy—fell, under the pressure of a Royal Commission, and were pensioned off. The Mint thus came entirely into the hands of the Government. Sir Jolin Herschel was appointed Master, and Captain Harness, R.E. (now Colonel, C.B.), Deputy Master of the Mint, and the last-named gentle- man employed himself energetically and skilfully in re-organiz- ing the establishment on a new footing. ‘Iwo clerks and two mechanics were appointed to succeed in the performance of the duties, though, unfortunately for themselves, not to anything resembling the emoluments of the Moneyers, and in November, 1851, the first comage of gold under the Government régime _ commenced. Several millions of sovereigns were struck by the ~ following Christmas, and very soon the new Moneyers, as they may be termed, became masters of their work. Captain Harness was not long in discovering the fallibility of the mode of sizing which had been for many centuries before pursued ; and, as Mr. Cotton, of the Bank of England, aided by the mechanical genius of Mr. James Napier, had already devised and patented an automaton balance for the detection and rejec- tion of light gold, the Captain determined, if possible, to make the apparatus available for minting purposes, and thus to super- sede the time-honoured, but very adequate and unsatisfactory practice of hand-weighing. Mr. Napier was consulted, and that eminent mechanist was not long in realizing the aspira- tions of Captain Harness. In a few months several automaton balances were prepared for the Mint. It was essential that these should be so constructed as that they should be capable of separating the light and heavy planchets from those which were of the medium weight, and it will be at once understood, therefore, that this exigency demanded further complexity in the machines than was apparent in the Bank automatons. The Bank had no objection to too heavy coins; their dislike was simply confined to those which were too light, and their machines had only to reject such as ‘when weighed in the balance” were “found wanting.” Mr. Napier solved the more difficult problem in the manufacture of the automatons for the Royal Mint. Experiments in his own factory in the first instance enabled him to do this, and when the machines were transferred to the Mint, they were accordingly found to perform their onerous and delicate functions with unerring exactitude. It became a question of some moment as to what part of the Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint. 81 establishment the new and silent, but most efficient coiners’ assistants should occupy on their arrival at Tower Hill. Above all things it was important that they should be undis- turbed in their vocation by the tremor or vibration of the powerful steam engines and ponderous machinery engaged in the reduction of bar go!d into planchets, or by the heavy and continuous beatings of the coming-presses, which finally con- verted those planchets into coin. A large room, on the base- ment story of the Coining Department buildings, and which had been used as a kind of gigantic ‘‘ what-not,” or magazine for the reception of odds and ends of every kind, by the Monueyers, appeared to offer peculiar attractions, and finally the marine stores within it—the accumulations of half-a-century nearly—were displaced and disposed of in order to make way for the incoming tenants. The room was lofty, large, and light ; and, singularly enough, it was situated immediately beneath the old sizing-room, the operations of which the automatons were intended to supersede. A short time sufficed to effect a marvellous transformation in the internal aspect of the future weighing-room. Its dingy and dirty walls and ceilings, covered by spiders’ webs and honeycombed by age, were cleansed | and renovated. A longitudinal trench of considerable depth was dug in it, and this afterwards filled in with concrete and stone, served as a foundation for the weighing balances. So far as isolation of position was concerned, this arrangement was perfect, and a line of low cast-iron tables— rather too low, perhaps, for the convenience of the attendants— was speedily implanted on the solid foundation. These tables, planed on their upper surfaces, which were made to a “‘ dead level,” were not long unoccupied. The automatons, in plate- glass and brass frames, soon glistened upon the tables, and, at a first glance, reminded one forcibly of as many skeleton drawing-room clocks arranged for inspection or sale. In order to communicate motion to them, a line of small bright wrought- iron shafting, supported by neat pendants of cast-iron attached to the ceiling, and upon which were hung brass three- motion pulleys, was made to span the length of the room. The shafting was immediately and high above the line of machines, and fine gut bands, passing over its pulleys, descended to corresponding pulleys on the main driving spindles of the automatons. The lower series of pulleys were immediately outside the machine cases through holes in which the spindles ran, and a small brass weight, lever, and friction wheels were so attached as to tighten the bands sufficiently to give constant motion to the coin-feeding slides, etc., of the tiny con- trivances within. A series of thumb-screws were added, for the application of pressure great enough to stop the action of 82 Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint. each machine at a moment’s notice. The withdrawal of the pressure permitted them to resume their duties at the same . brief notice. In aremote corner of the room was placed the direct, though in itself secondary, motive power—a small atmospheric engine. This was constructed so as to resemble very closely a high- pressure steam engine. It had cylinder, piston, slides, fly- wheel, and governor. Beneath the cylinder, and forming its bed-plate indeed, was a vacuum-chamber of considerable di- mensions. ‘This could be exhausted by an air-pump, with which a two-inch pipe connected it; whilst the extent of rare- faction within it was made controllable by means of a steelyard relief-valve, and a barometer-gauge placed on the exhaust-pipe. The air-pump was the same which gave motion to the pneu- matic apparatus of the coining-presses. It was on the double- acting principle—that is, it exhausted in both up and down strokes, and had many peculiarities to distinguish it from ordinary air-pumps. The writer may fairly take some credit. for its invention and introduction to the Royal Mint. Return- ing to the atmospheric motor of the automatom weighing balances, it must be further said that when its vacuum-chamber was exhausted, and the opening of a cock in the exhaust-pipe caused it instantaneously to be so, it was only necessary further to move the fly-wheel slightly (so as to turn the crank of the engine past the centre) im order to put it in motion. A stream of air from the room rushed immediately through a small brass tube, having a trumpet-mouth, into the cylinder, and acted upon the piston, as steam from the boiler in an or- dinary engine would act. fastened to the arms of the fly- wheel was a pulley, and a strap from this passing round a similar pulley gave motion to the overhead shaft. We have gone thus minutely into a description of the propel- ling arrangements of the weighing balances, because they are unique, and they combine perfect isolation with perfect regu- larity of motion. The varying speed of the general machinery of the establishment cannot affect that of the atmospheric engine and the shafting it drives, because a uniform vacuum is preserved in the vacuum-chamber of the former, and the air exerts a con- stant pressure on its piston. This uniformity is a sine qua non for correct weighing. As the mind of a judge in a court of justice must, if his decisions are to be just, be unswayed by passion or prejudice, so must the mute judges of the Mint planchets of gold or silver be undisturbed in their action, if their sentences are to be truthful and worthy confirmation. We have said that the law of gravitation is infallible; it is so, but it must be allowed fair play and perfect freedom to ensure in- fallibility. In the Mint balances it is the ruling power, but Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint. 83 that power must not be tampered with. Balances must not be hurried in their movements. It is said that those who think twice before they speak once, will speak twice the better for it; but certainly the balance which is allowed due time for acting will yield far more truthful results than that which is not. One of the great principles of the automaton, therefore, is deliberation, the other, regularity of motion. Let us now proceed to show how mechanical arrange- ments give practical force to both principles. We will imagine that a large number—say 10,000 ounces weight, for example—of sovereign planchets have reached the weighing-room. ‘They are first weighed in bulk, because it is necessary that a check should exist upon the few workpeople who are to be entrusted with the task of feeding the automatons, and then commences their distribution among the machines, each of which is supplied with a brass spout, twenty inches long, and placed at an angle. In these spouts roleaux of plan- chets are carefully deposited, the lowest planchet in each case resting on the top of the machine, and the others supported in regular order, planchet upon planchet, above it. Now, there- fore, allis ready for action, and the automatons simply require that a small coupling upon each of their main spindles shall, by | the pressure of the thumb and finger of an attendant, be made to revolve with the loose pulleys upon them. Possibly it may simplify and render more intelligible our description if we single out one balance for illustration ; and here it may be also said that the whole theory of the automatic weighing machines depends upon the fact that the centre of gravity and the centre of action of its beam are in one line, or on one level. Hither centre being disturbed, the balance will be no longer equal. The beam, which is of well-tempered steel, is 8°90 inches in length, and weighs 288:41 Troy grains. Its knife edges find their own resting-places upon curved loops of steel beneath them, and as the points of contact are small, the friction is minimized. The beam is supported immediately below the feeding-spout or hopper, and is preserved from dust by being covered with a brass plate. Above the upper part of one end of the beam—that immediately in advance of the foot of the hopper—is seen a flat disc of polished steel, slightly larger in diameter than a sovereign planchet. ‘This is in fact the scale- pan, and it forms the upper part of a fine steel rod, delicately poised, and readily moved by, or moving the beam. Above the opposite end of the beam depends another steel rod, and this, finishing with a cage at the base of the machine, carries a glass counterpoise of the minimum legal weight of a sovereign. Below the cage, but not attached to it, is a “stirrup,” in which rests a piece of platinum wire of the VOL. V.~—NO. II. H 84 Automatic Weighing at the Royal Mint. precise weight of the legal difference or remedy allowed between sovereigns as a compensation for imperfection of workmanship—namely, the 514th part of a grain. Sup- posing, now, the machine to be started, the first action is that caused by a cam attached to the main spindle, and it consists in a small slide, shghtly thinner than a sovereign, being pushed below the hopper, and forcing forward a planchet to the scale-pan or disc. There it rests for about three seconds, and its exact weight is, during the brief interval, noted by the automaton. If that weight exceeds the legal maximum, it depresses the end of the beam upon which it rests, and, as a consequence, raises the opposite end with its stirrup and remedy wire. The planchet is thus proved to be too heavy, and as a flattened tube vibrates below, it is pushed into this by its suc- cessor on the scale-pan—another planchet. The lower orifice of the tube passes in its vibrations over the spaces, or slots, and these lead into three compartments, known as “ light,” “medium,” and “heavy” boxes. At the instant the too: heavy planchet was dismissed into the tube, the lower mouth of the latter was held by a mechanical finger, governed by the movement of the beam, over the inner or too heavy box, and into this the rejected claimant for sovereignty falls. The next planchet may be imagined to err on the other side of the standard, and to be too light. In this case the beam will be raised by the glass counterpoise, and the tube, by the agency referred to, will conduct the condemned piece of gold into the too light box. When a medium or acceptable planchet arrives on the scale-pan, the beam will maintain a rigid equilibrium, and the succeeding planchet will push it into the tube, which having its mouth held over the central or medium slot, will conduct the accepted suitor into the medium box. In this way the automaton judges try and acquit or pass sentence of con, demnation upon all the planchets submitted to their notice. They are thus constituted mute arbiters of the other mechanical operations of the Mint, and they take care at once of the public and the Mint’s interests. It is not possible, so long as their intervention is secured, for light sovereigns to pass into circu- lation, nor for the Master of the Mint to waste the precious material of which they are composed, by issuing heavy ones. The automatons hit the happy medium, and “hold the balance fairly” between manufacturer and consumer. Parsimony and excessive liberality are alike unknown to them; they are just, but not o’er generous. Finally, it may be observed of the system of automatic weighing at the Mint, that it is as near perfection as possible. It is also economical in the highest degree; for though each machine employed cost a fraction over £200, they have—to.use Tee, tame fy ee AE ie a Ste Oe Ai eae , 7 y The Harthquake at Mendoza, 20th March, 1861. 85 a common expression well understood—paid for themselves over and over again in the saving of wages and of gold effected by their use. The maximum number of planchets which the automatons can satisfactorily ‘‘ dispose of” im a day amounts to 200,000, and the average per cent. of rejected may be set down at five. At the close of each day the whole pro- ceeds are weighed up in bulk—the good planchets being after- wards forwarded for stamping, and the bad returned to the crucible for re-melting. An attempt has been made to save some of the “too heavy,” as brands from the burning, by fiine and scraping their edges in a noisy machine; but the value of the process is questionable. If their surfaces could be touched in a discriminating way by means of a file, or cutter, the case might be different. As itis, the coins are likely to suffer artistically by the use of the scraper, and this is an undue price to be paid for a problematical advantage. We give at p. 73 an illustration representing one of the Automaton Balances of the Mint, the artist having removed a portion of the “case” so that the “‘ works” may be the better seen. THE HARTHQUAKE AT MENDOZA, 207s MARCH, 1861. BY WM. BOLLAERT. (With a Tinted Plate.) IT-am indebted to my friend Major Rickard,* who visited Mendoza in May, 1862, for the admirable photographic view of the devastation occasioned by the dreadful earthquake which occurred on the 20th March, 1861, and which is excellently, shown in the annexed plate, and also for a remarkable letter written by Don Domingo de Oro, a gentleman who was buried for five hours beneath the ruins of the city, and containing many interesting and hitherto unpublished facts. I have translated this letter from the original Spanish, believing that it would be acceptable to English readers; but before introducing Don | Domingo’s terrible recital, I will offer a few remarks relative to the city and province of Mendoza, and make the narrative more complete by citations from other letters written from the scene of the disaster. Mendoza is situated in 82° 52’ §. lat., 69° 6’ W. long., 4891 feet above the level of the sea, and at the eastern foot of the _ * See A Mining Jowrney across the Great Andes, with Explorations in the Silver Mining Districts of San Juan and Mendoza, by Major F. J. Rickard, F.G.8., ete, ete.—Simith, Eider, § Co., 1863, _ 86 The Harthquake at Mendoza, 20th March, 1861. Great Andes. It is shut out from any view of the Cordillera by a range of lower mountains which intervene. The appear- ance of the city before the earthquake was neat and cheerful, the houses of one story, with porticoes, mostly built of adobes, a sun-dried brick, plastered and whitewashed, and the streets laid out at right angles, Its Alameda or public walk was equal to anything of the kind in South America, being nearly a mile in length, nicely kept, and shaded by rows of magnificent poplars, or alamos, from which its name. The climate is delightful and salubrious, although goitre affects a few. The population of the city before its destruc- tion was some 16,000 souls, about one-third of that of the whole province. The Province of Mendoza occupies a space ~ of 150 miles N. and §., along the eastern side of the Cordillera of the Andes, and about as much H. and W. It produces wine, brandy, raisins, figs, wheat, flour, hides, tallow, soap, etc. Of its mines, those of silver at Uspallata are important; and. among its mineral products are reckoned, copper, limestone, gypsum, alum, mineral pitch, bituminous shales, coal (probably tertiary), slates, fire-clays, saline deposits, including, it is said, nitrate and sulphate of soda, and indications of borax. In the Andean region of this province, in a N.W. direction from Mendoza, is the voleano of Aconcagua, more than 23,000 feet above the sea; that of Tupungato, to the S.W.; that of Maipu, to 8.S.W. (15,000 feet); and that of Peteroa, S. of the Maipu. Having thus made the reader acquainted with the locality, IT will leave the following extracts from letters to tell the story of the disaster :— ** Menvoza, March 22nd, 1861. “ This city was visited by an awful earthquake, at 8°45 Pat. _the evening of the 20th inst. In seven or eight seconds the whole city and habitations in the vicinity were in ruins, beneath which disappeared about two-thirds of the population, say 12,000. I assisted to save Don I’. Garfia, who had been ten hours buried under ruins, two yards in depth.” Another person writes on same date :—*“‘ I have only lost two of my children and the nurse. My wife and the rest of the family were buried for a time, but we got them out, they are much hurt.” On the 24th, another letter says:—‘‘ At 845 p.m., the Teremoto or severe earthquake took place. In a moment, three-fourths of the city was in ruins; the greater portion of the inhabitants are victims. The 21st, 22nd, and 23rd, the shocks continued at intervals, when the remainder of the houses fell. The few inhabitants left alive are doing their best to search for and rescue the buried ones, a The Harthquake at Mendoza, 20th March, 1861. 87 *« The earthquake movement came from south and east, and was impelled to north and west; these movements continuing about five or six seconds. This once smiling city is now level with the plain. Although I was wounded by the falling of a wall, I exerted myself in the hope of assisting others. I heard groans and calling for help from beneath me at every step. Some, who appeared to have lost their senses, screamed for their fathers, mothers, brothers, sisters, wives, husbands, children and friends. Men, women, and children were dragging at the robes of a priest, praying for absolution. I saw heaps of mutilated fellow-creatures, I heard their dying and despairing groans. “In a few days I fear the few who have been spared will become victims to the knife of the assassin-robbers. Putrefac- tion of the dead bodies has commenced, and we have but little food. ; “ Just after the great shock, I went to the public walk, where I beheld a group praying round a monk, who instead of com- forting assured them that flames and burning sulphur would soon consume them, beseeching all to repent and pray. This was not my opinion; I urged the desponding party to be up and doing in aid of those who were buried amongst the ruins. My friends P. and C had been buried alive for an hour, whilst striving to save a child, and, although separated, could converse freely. ‘I fear we are lost,’ said P . ‘I believe we are,’ replied C ‘ Had we not better try to sleep, and so not feel the agonies of death?’ ‘ Perhaps we had better do so. Farewell, farewell! Should you be saved, say to my mother that in my last moments I thought of her. I will do the same for you, if I am preserved. Farewell!’ ‘ Dear friend, I am choking with the dust; more walls are falling on us; I am getting squeezed more and more down to the earth. Let us alternately cry for help. Hark! I hear footsteps above us.’ In truth, B had arrived, and heard the voice of his son, CO Digging was commenced; but ere the two friends were got at, C had died. Many such scenes occurred throughout the ruins. Our friend Urizar was buried for ten hours. §S was half an hour below ground; his position was discovered by his dog ‘Othello.’ Muioz was saved by falling under his horse. We hear from San Juan (some 50 leagues to the N. of Mendoza) that the town has suffered much; the river there has left its bed, and inundated the city. To the 8. and E. the earthquake effects have been less. About a*hundred years since Mendoza suffered very considerably from an earthquake, which is known as the Tere- moto of Santa Rita.” Seven or eight months before this present earthquake, at a 88 The Earthquake at Mendoza, 20th March, 1861. distance of four or five leagues from Mendoza, there were move- ments of the land sufficient to displace trees; there were open- ings in the ground from which came out sulphurous and saline matters. Two nights before the earthquake, at same spot, the ground rose and fell. The great movements of the earthquake were from 8.W. to N.E., and then from N.H. to 8.W., the ground opening in many places. It was not preceded by noise or rambling.. The ground seemed to rise or swell up. Twelve miles from the city the ground opened in a 8.H. and N.W. direction for more than three miles in length, and in places two and a half cuadras (375 yards) wide, and saline waters were thrown out. On the night of the earthquake, shocks occurred at intervals of five or six minutes, up to the sixth day. On the eighth day they were more frequent, then diminished in number again. The shocks were accompanied by sounds like the firmg of cannon. Under Mendoza there seems to be a large hollow, and people have an idea that there is much water init. It is said that a nun was got out alive after eight days’ burial, but she died shortly afterwards. It was reported that a French watchmaker in. Buenos Ayres (which is about 550 geographical miles a little S.H. from Mendoza*) observed the pendulum of his clocks much affected at about 9 p.m. on the night of the earthquake. On the 29th March, 1861, Mr. R. F. Budge, of Valparaiso, communicated to the writer of this paper as follows, on the subject of the Mendoza earthquake : “I noted in my catalogue of earthquakes this one, not from the strength of it here on the 20th inst., at 8.35+ p.m., but from its duration, which led me to believe that we should soon hear of a dreadful catastrophe at some distant place in Chile. On the 25th an express arrived’ from Mendoza, announcing that it had been totally ruined, the great shock having occurred there at 8.45 p.m., lasting less than a minute, which was the time I noted here. ‘T'wo pendulum clocks, beating N. and 8., stopped.” Since March, 1861, occasional shocks have been experi- enced at Mendoza. In a Buenos Ayrean paper of January, 1863, it is stated that Mendoza was lately visited by rather a severe series of shocks. The new town, rising out of the ruins of 1861, is constructed of wood. I will now give the translation of a letter of Don Domingo de Oro, which is a very remarkable record of the thoughts and feelings of a man buried alive for more than five hours :— * Hence it would seem that the undulation took fifteen minutes to travel 550 geographical miles. + In this instance, 140 geographical miles in ten minutes. In the one case, it travelled along the Pampas of Buenos Ayres; in the other, through the Andes. The Earthquake at Mendoza, 20th March, 1861. 89 eho Masor Bet. RrcKaro, Inspector-General of Mines, etc., etc. « Burnos Ayres, December Ey 1862. “My dear Sir,—In conformity with my promise, T will try to narrate to you my impressions as well as my reflections on the subject of the horrible night of the 20th March, 1861, in Mendoza. I will do my best to give you an account, in the plainest terms possible, of one of the most dreadful occurrences on record. “Tt was about a quarter to nine at night. I was at the house of Don Meliton Arroyo, in an apartment near to the street, in company with my relative, Pedro Zavalla. The house was in the ‘Calle del Cormercio,’ a cuadra and a half (225 varas) from the public promenade. I was standing, and about to proceed for my customary evening walk, when there was heard a loud cracking in the roof of the house. The rumbling sound which generally precedes an earthquake was heard in the city, but not by us; still we felt perfectly satisfied as to the cause of the creaking in the roof of the house, and Zavalla cried out ‘Temblor, or earthquake; ‘and a strong one too,’ I exclaimed, running towards the door, so as to get into the street; and a few quick steps brought me there, when I passed onwards towards the promenade. “The upper portion of the house of Arroyo, which was of one story, bulged out and fell to the ground to my left, a little in advance of me. At this moment I lost the hope of being able to arrive at the nearest intersection of the streets, at which point I thought to escape and save my life. At times it happens that one gives utterance to one’s thoughts, or we think aloud; so I went onwards, repeating, ‘it is impossible to be saved,’ when, as if to confirm my words, I received a violent blow from behind, which struck the upper part of my right leg, when I was thrown with my face to the ground, and my arms extended. I felt at the same moment that I was being covered up with weighty earthy matters, and was stretched out on the path. ~ ments of physics, and without that knowledge it is impossible to make sufficient advance in any other science to afford either profit or delight. And yet hundreds of schools still exist, at which boys and girls may pass seven or fourteen years without knowing the difference between a pulley and a screw! For private families the means of pleasurable instruction are sup- plied by Dr. Arnott’s book. It should be read a chapter at a time, and the various experiments performed with articles that exist in every house. Pieces of stick will make levers; every- body can get a common carpenter’s screw; a cotton reel is a pulley ; a teapot teaches hydrostatics, because the small column in its spout is able to balance the big column in the vessel itself; it will also teach some hydraulics, because, with a given inclination, it will discharge its contents quicker when full, than: when, from being partly empty, the ‘level of the source of supply is not so much above the point of exit as in the former case, and consequently the pressure is less. The habit of understanding’ the scientific principles that operate in daily concerns is an invaluable one. It is astonishing that men have lived so long in the world, and that the most civilized nations are only beginning to find out that it is desirable to know something about it. Without some knowledge of physics and chemistry, without microscopes and telescopes, the mind is half starved, because so little of nature’s operations is understood ; and there remains a great gulf of separation between the in- structed few and the uninstructed many. Far better would it be—and happily not now difficult or costly—for the average cultivation of youth to be carried at least as far as the rudiments of positive knowledge in the departments we have specified, and then the capacities of society for utility and enjoyment would be a million-fold increased. t * ameinotlh Te antl By : Jernemedat (Ba eninge OT "ars, te Ae: eulieie 25 | PUTRI es weidut, ae Subik avait ) am yf shisha 0 ure bare Viv emtalloonS sme. ayateiga S10" -atiacra? . : Y 4 ¥ . \ — # ett “ct ar apwecteJ > sae RIO9 sel, 6 ita Le iret Woe e seer ' SHpihmiend ome AT steers Se jegeN & Berare idee Go yeutinet worse SEE ensbont cor eabilyogtt: do \ ’ . 0: dtimolisal Sh Seis Fe i act Va : auiacert SOL wana? 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PLANETS OF THE MONTH. DOUBLE STAR. OCCULTATIONS. BY THE REY. T. W. WEBB, M.A., F.R.A.S. INDEX-MAP OF THE MOON. THE accompanymeg diagram of the moon is not intended as a pictorial representation of the surface of our satellite, but as a guide to the position of the more conspicuous spots or inte- resting regions; and beyond this it makes no pretensions.* From the principle of selection which has been adopted, it is hoped that it will be less perplexing to the amateur who is commencing the study of our satellite, than if it were a crowded reduction of a larger map; and while it will assist him in acquiring the nomenclature of the principal features, its more express object will be to enable him to identify the posi- tion of the details which it is intended to describe successively in future papers. It has been divided into two halves, in order to avoid the inconvenience of folding ; and bisection in an HE. and W. direction has been preferred to the more natural one from N. to §., as interfering with much fewer objects. This, however, has entailed the necessity of turning the diagram on its side, that it may present an aspect similar to that of the full moon in an inverting telescope. The grey plains, or so-called seas, are distinguished by Roman capital letters, the craters and mountains by Arabic numerals, corres- ponding with the accompanying list, which, it will be observed, has been so arranged as to bring the designation as nearly opposite as may be to the spot to which it belongs. The great work of Beer and Madler being adopted as the standard authority, their order has been followed in the distribution of the numbers, though its appropriateness may not be in every instance as apparent as might be wished. The student is re- commended to pay especial attention to the situation of the points of the compass, which differs materially from that recognized almost universally in terrestrial maps. The reason of this peculiarity will be clear if the diagram is turned upside down ; it will then represent the full moon as seen on the me- ridian without a telescope, and the designation of each part of the lunar disc will be found to correspond with the points of the terrestrial compass on every side. This semi-inversion, which arises from our standing face to face with the object, and is exactly that of a common looking-glass, or a front-view * A much more complete map, twelve inches in diameter, containing every spot included in the nomenclature of Beer and Midler (404 in all), will be found in the author’s little work entitled Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes. 194. The Moon. reflector, will be a little puzzling at first, and should be tho- roughly mastered in order not to get bewildered and lose our way in following the description of details. We are now prepared to enter upon an individual examina- tion of the most conspicuous wonders of our satellite; a few preliminary remarks, however, may be expedient, to put the student in possession of such information as he may subse- quently find useful. With regard to the lunar nomenclature, this, though now reduced to a settled arrangement, has been formerly subject to great variation. Hevel, the celebrated observer of Dantzig, who flourished during the latter half of the seventeenth century, was the first to designate the various regions and spots by names ; these he derived from some kind of analogy between the configurations of the terrestrial and lunar surfaces—occasionally a tolerably happy one, but gene- * ; rally speaking very inappropriate, as well as inadequate to meet the future requirements of advancing knowledge. His suc- cessor, Riccioh, though an inferior observer, improved con- siderably upon this method, by the adoption of Hevel’s earlier idea, which had been abandoned from the fear of apparent partiality, and which consisted im the employment of the names of eminent scientific men—among these taking care not to forget his own. He changed, at the same time, Hevel’s appellations of the so-called seas, for others referring to sup- posed influences exercised by the moon upon the atmosphere and productions of the earth, and altered in a similar way those of the higher districts and mountain ranges ; but in the latter case his designations have fallen into disuse, or have, in a few instances, been unable to supplant the earlier ones. Fortu- nately for Riccioli’s scheme, it is of an elastic character; the constant increase in the number of scientific names admitting of its extended application in proportion to the increased number of spots which modern accuracy seeks to distinguish ; such an extension is, in fact, being carried out at the present time by our own zealous and able selenographer, Mr. Birt ; and this nomenclature may now be considered as established beyond the prospect of change. As, however, it would be obviously impossible to find separate designations in this way for all the objects which require to be identified, Schriter introduced the use of the letters of the Roman and Greek alphabets for the minor details in each of his “ selenotopo- — graphical’ plates ; and this plan has been reduced by Beer and Miidler to a regular system, which it may be desirable to ex- plain in this place, as their letter-press is not always in the hands of the possessors of their map. Every object which has no proper name is referred to the nearest spot so designated ; if a mountain, it is indicated by a Greek, if a hollow, by a Latin \ The Moon. 195 letter subjoined to the name of the principal spot; capital letters are employed for points whose position has been deter- mined by measurement, smaller ones for such as are filled in by the eye; these letters standing, especially when so required, on the side of the object next to the spot whence it is named ; and the alphabetical succession being determined by the rela- ' tive conspicuousness of the features when best seen. The system is an Ingenious one, but not im all cases easy, or clear, in its application. A more comprehensive and universally available mode of designating every spot worthy of notice on the lunar disc, is understood to be in the course of preparation by Mr. Birt, and will be a great acquisition to astronomers. In order to be able to give some verbal description of the features of the moon, as well as to assist the investigation of supposed ‘changes, it 1s material to employ a scale of bright- ness, in which the different degrees, though depending of necessity upon mere estimation, are expressed by numbers. Schréter and Lohrmann employed a scale of ten degrees for this purpose, and have been followed by B. and M., who, making . the absolute shadows = 0, assign 1° to 3° to the dark grey districts, 4° and 5° to the lighter grey, 6 and 7° to the white regions, and 8° to 10° to the glittermg spots. 1°, 9’, and 10° are of infrequent occurrence. 2° and 3° denote the common tone of the ‘ maria,” 4° to 6° that of the brighter landscapes, 4° to 7 the rings of most, and the interiors of many craters, 6, 7, and 8’ express the brightness of many peaks and ridges ; but it is remarked by B. and M. that these are never, generally speaking, the most elevated points in the district. It is not very probable that many of our readers would wish to undertake the measurement of the heights and depths of the surface. The task would not only be a somewhat troublesome, but to a considerable extent a superfluous one, as it has already been performed with much accuracy by Beer and Midler, in no less than 1095 cases, comprising most of the principal and con- veniently accessible features of the moon. Many of their results will be found in the following papers; but they will be given in round numbers, as the extreme preciseness, extending even to single toises, with which they are specified by those authorities, has of course no other value than that of showing the carefulness of the observation. As all these measures are determined by the lengths of shadows, a trifling difference, as to which we have very little means of judging, in the level of the ground where the shadow terminates, will have so great an influence on the final result, that no such exceeding accuracy is possible. No doubt, much might yet be done, if it were thought desirable to obtain more perfect correctness, by taking the average of many measures, obtained at different times from VOL. V.—NO, III, Ls 196 . The Moon. different lengths of shadow; and should any observer, pos- sessing’ a good micrometer, and facility in the use of it, wish to offer such a contribution to selenography, he will find all the necessary formule in Der Mond (The Moon) of Beer and Midler. As to the instrument to be employed, many of the lunar features are so conspicuous, that any good telescope will suffice AZOUT E oO CONDORCET PROM: AGARUM PROCLUS ALHAZEN cuna\Y [The above diagram of the Mare Crisium contains the principal features in the map of B. and M.; the portion, however, surrounded by a dotted line is altered to correspond with my own observations. ] to show them. Of course, a larger instrument would be pre- ferable; but even a 2-inch object-glass with a good astro- nomical eye-piece will reveal wonders enough to be a constant source of interest. In the case of a very large aperture and an The Moon. | 197 eye sensitive to light, much comfort may be experienced from the adoption of a screen-glass, such as is used for solar observa- tions, but, of course, of a much lighter hue: a pale green has been recommended by Challis as very suitable. High mag- nifiers are seldom of much value; they contract the field unpleasantly, and increase the apparent motion of the object, unless a driving-power is at hand. From 100 to 300 times may be mentioned as most generally serviceable. Beer and Miidler never exceeded the latter in their original investigation with an aperture of nearly 43 inches, though Midler, after succeeding W. Struve at Dorpat, employed powers of 600 and even 1100*, with the great achromatic of 9°6 inches, in that observatory. . We begin with one of the most familiarly-known spots, the— MARE CRISIUM. The remarkably well-defined grey pla, marked A in our Index-map, has received from Riccioli the name of Mare Crisium,t+ ‘‘ the Sea of Crises,” by which, as there is nothing of an astrologico-political character in his nomenclature, he probably meant changes of weather ; and, if so, has, as far as he could, commended it to the especial attention of English astronomers. It is so distinctly and strongly bounded as to be always easy of identification, lymg near the W. limb, and not far N. of the lunar equator: and we cannot wonder at the im- pression of the earlier observers, who imagined, in such a striking Vvel, the exact counterpart of a terrestrial sea, or great lake encircled by a rampart of mountains. Such, how- ever, was not the full conviction of Hevel, though he adopted the name as the closest approximation that he could find; and such an idea will not be revived in the present day, so multiphed and so distinct are the roughenings of the surface which modern instruments will show, and so clear the view into the depths of eraters, which would be the chief receptacles of any fluid exist- ing there.t The “ Mare” before us is evidently a very inte- resting one; its oblique position, however, subjects it to so great a foreshortening that its interior is studied to much less advantage than if it occupied a more central situation. From its nearness to the edge of the disc its apparent form is much * These were, however, probably much exaggerated. Encke found that the 600 power on a similar achromatic at Berlin, by the same maker, proved to be only 400 by the dynameter. + Certainly little imagining that any future astronomer would ever quote its genitive case as ‘‘Mare Crisii,” which, however, B. and M. have done in one instance, p. 194. { Arago, however, thinks this inference not conclusive, as the uneven, craggy bottom of our oceans may be distinctly seen from a great height. It might be added that fresh water would be still more translucent. 198 The Moon. affected by libration; its measure from H. to W. varying at different times from 0°6 to 0°8 of that from N. to 8. Its general appearance is that of an irregular oval extended along the lunar meridian, and we should not have supposed, from mere inspection, that in consequence of the perspective fore- shortening it is actually elliptical the opposite way, its longer axis pointing towards the eye, or more correctly from W.S.W. to H.S.E. of the lunar compass. In this direction it extends nearly 354 English miles; from N. to 8. about 280 miles, or about the distance from London to Newcastle. lis area is about 78,000 square miles,* ;4th part of the visible hemis- phere of the moon, ten times the surface of Yorkshire and Lancashire united, or a little more than half as much again as the area of England and Wales, though of a very dissimilar. - form. Of this, however, only 3ths can be considered level: Its border is not everywhere continuous, being interrupted im some places, especially towards the W., on which side narrow arms or straits penetrate the mountains, and communicate with smaller grey surfaces. No “sea” is equally dark in compari- son with its mountain boundaries, having generally only 2° to 25° of light, grey in tone, mingled with dark green; but the latter colour, according to B. and M., for I have never seen it, is perceptible only a few days before and after the full moon, with a large aperture, a moderate power, and very favourable weather, and, except near the Promontorium Agarum, nowhere extends to the W. limit. It has been represented by Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, in his three general views of this surface, sketched with the feeling and spirit of a genuine artist, but entering little into detail. ‘Practice and experience,” he says, “brought to view so many decided and interesting features of colour,” that the idea of employing black and white alone had to be abandoned. ‘The surrounding region ranks as 5° of light, in some spots rising to 6° and 7°. Mountains en- compass it all round, attaiming a considerable height on the NE. side; here, im a line passing through Picard A and B, B. and M. have measured a summit of 13,300 feet, and further to the §.8.E. others of 7,150, 11,300, and 6,700 feet; these decline at once precipitously to the plain, from which they must exhibit a magnificent spectacle, and over which they must command a marvellous prospect. Such views are of frequent occurrence in the moon, and the rapid rounding-off of so com- * Something appears to have gone wrong here in the text of B. and M., as, assuming thate lene and breadth to be correct, the area they have given is con- siderably too small. I have corrected this ; but am sorry to add that something has gone much more wrong in this place in my little book, entitled Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes, where, from using an erroneous multiplier, I have made the area only 14,260 square miles! I find, however, a similar st bers in Cosmos, iv. 492 (Bohn The Moon. 199 paratively small a globe, and the sharpness of outline and detail consequent upon the absence of a vaporous atmosphere, must give them an effect which would seem very astonishing to a terrestrial spectator. Further to the 8. this EH. coast declines to a kind of pass, not well shown by B. and M., who admit that this part of their map is deficient in boldness, but much better drawn by Schroter: on the other side of this in- terruption the mountains rise again, and on the 8. the great summits Picard a and 6 spring up to 14,200 and 15,600 feet, rivalling our loftiest Alpme peaks; beyond these the great headland, named Promontoriwm Agarum by Hevel, runs out into the plain with a rounded summit nearly 11,000 feet in height, supported by cliffs 8° bright a few days after the full, when they are most directly enlightened. Burt has detected a crater upon it. In this direction broad bays and “ fiords” penetrate the mountain border towards the S., and in the young crescent are filled with shade. The W. edge of the “Mare” is less boldly defined between the craters Condorcet and Himmart, and is made. up of hillocks and ridges, intermixed with isolated mountains, like lofty islands in the sea. It was among these that Schroter found a distinct and always recognizable crater, abouttwenty-three miles in diameter, remark- able for its dark grey colour under every angle of illumination, to which he gave the name Alhazen, and which, from its proxi- mity to the W. limb, he continually used for the purpose of measuring the libration. Having thus had it constantly before his eyes, he was the more surprised at its variable aspect: at first it was a depressed grey surface within a ring; then frequently, and even in the 27-foot reflector, like a longish flat ridge, and these appearances were interchangeable ; sometimes, too, while the neighbouring objects were as sharp as usual, it would be so indistinct that ‘he did not know what to make of it: and on one occasion (1797, March 1), after ten years of observation, when libration was most unfavourable, as having carried its W. edge to within 28” of the limb, and the ter- minator had crossed over to the other side of the ‘ Mare,” and it consequently ought to have been very ill seen, he found it extraordinarily distinct: its form, however, was one pre- viously entirely unknown, that of a very deep bright irregular crater, whose ring was barely complete towards the S., and open, with a prolongation of its HE. edge, at the opposite end. The cause of this difference, he thought, must lie in some modi- fication of the lunar atmosphere, such as he believed that he could trace in many instances, which would be capable of masking the depths of a crater, and giving it a grey and flat aspect, or changing altogether its appearance. In Bode’s Jahrbuch for 1825, Kunowsky, an accurate observer, asserted 200 The Moon. that Alhazen was no longer to be found under any form, and that the region seemed quite different; nor did B. and M. come to any other conclusion. They could discover no ring- shaped mountain there—on the contrary, an abundance of partly isolated, partly connected hills and mountains, and long, dark, curved valleys and bays; so, knowing the “ great uncer- tainty ”’* of Schréter’s drawings, they fixed upon a crater con- siderably further 8. to bear the name, as it seemed to corres- pond best with Schréter’s object. On the other hand, Pastorff and Harding stated, in the Jahrbuch for 1827, that they could always see Alhazen; and Kohler, under the year 1828, asserts that it has not disappeared, but is very variable in aspect; and he has given several figures showing that it corresponds with B. and M.’s Alhazen a, the loftiest mountain in the region, 7700 | feet above the valley to the W. On the EH. side of this height,. between it and some low ridges, lies a deep hollow, with open- ings to the ‘ Mare,” the colour of which varies with its illu- mination, while the mountain itself might, from its shape, sometimes take the aspect of a rmg. And with this B. and M. seem satisfied, notwithstanding their having changed the name. At the commencement of 1862, Birt recovered this spot, exactly im the position given by Schréter, and has _ described it in detail as a deep valley between two mountain ranges, of which the W. (a of B. and M.) is much the higher : these are quite separate at their 8. end, but under many cir- cumstances are barely distinguishable from the ring of a crater. On the EH. side of Alhazen, where Birt perceived one or two minute craters, Gruithuisen fancied that certain rows of hillocks might contain the habitations of Selenites! and here, too, he noticed rapid changes from bright to grey under increasing sunshine, which, being contrary to photometrical principles, he was disposed to refer to cultivation. Fanciful and absurd as his speculations often are, we should not do right in syste- matically rejecting his facts, some of which may be worthy of further investigation. * That there is occasional cause for this censure need not be denied, though coarseness and rudeness of delineation would be a more appropriate characteristic. But still the old Hanoverian astronomer was far from always deserving the dis- paraging remarks of his successors, Jor instance, they have brought it asa charge against him that he drew the Mare Crisium, “with all its environs,” in a single evening, and has given it a bordering so unlike the truth, that it is scarcely sufli- cient for its recognition (a bold and strange assertion), and is quite useless for the identification of details; and they ask how it is possible on such data to found ideas as to the existence of atmospheric or volcanic changes. It would hardly be supposed that Schréter’s own expressions are, that as a single evening is too short for the examination, measurement, and delineation of such a region, and it would be wrong, and misleading, to te together separate drawings taken under dif- ferent circumstances, his sketch is expressly confined to the interior level, and the remarkable objects in the mountain border, but that the latter is merely laid down in a general way. The Moon. 201 The grey interior plain contains many irregularities of surface, of which the principal is a crater called Picard, at least twenty-one miles in diameter. Twenty-one miles! what a scale this gives the lunar student in gazing at this marvellous landscape! A spectator stationed here would see the earth like a great globe, between three and four times of the ap- parent size of the moon to us, standing at an elevation of about 34° in its W.8.W. sky, passing through all the varied phases of the moon, and only shifting its place a little in consequence of libration. The sun, on the contrary, reaches 74° to 77° of altitude at noon, and the interior hollow is for 120h. a shadow- less and, as we should suppose, an oppressively burning basin. Jt is surrounded by a tint somewhat darker than that of the rest of the plain, above which its W. wall ascends 3050 feet, but 5300 above the bottom of the crater. Schrdter has given the latter at least 3000 feet more, but no measures can be trusted taken under so unfavourable an angle. The smaller craters, Picard A and B, are steeper and deeper, and retain almost all their shadow when it is quitting their more imposing neighbour. Within the line of the EH. coast lie several high mountains, either isolated or connected by low ridges, as is frequently observed in the moon. These are so ill-represented im the great map of B. and M. that they have given a special drawing with the letter-press, full of minute detail. Like all their delineations towards the limb, it suffers materially in effect from the attempt to represent both sides of every mountain as in a bird’s-eye view, when one side only is visible in per- spective. It would not, indeed, have been practicable to avoid this, while persevermg consistently in the conventional style adopted in maps ; but the result is unfavourable in all situations lying obliquely to the eye. Independently however of this awkwardness, for which the observer must learn to make allowance, I am obliged to remark that I cannot succeed in reconciling it with what I have seen in the same region, and have roughly indicated in the accompanying diagram. One of these mountains which B. and M. have designated e (affixing the letter, however, in their large map not to the proper object, but to a mountain about 2° N.N.W.), terminates a low serpentine ridge running up from the crater Picard d, and contains, beneath its summit (the loftiest point in the neighbourhood,* 5500 feet above its W. base), a distinct crater, first represented by Cassini; of the existence of this there is no question: but its W. is so much higher, broader, and brighter than its H. wall * Schroter however rates it differently. He gives it 4982 feet, but thinks ‘some of its neighbours higher. I have also noticed it not casting the longest shadow ; but in this there is much uncertainty, for want of an uniformly level dase. f 202 ' The Moon. that under many angles of illumination it assumes the appear- ance of a long mountain ridge. Such is the explanation offered by B. and M. (after Kunowsky) of the singular changes in form and shading which long perplexed Schroter, and which led him to infer atmospheric if not volcanic changes ; and it seems probable that im this instance the more modern astronomers have the best of the argument. The question however is not altogether clear. Schrdter’s observations upon this group of mountains are too numerous to be recited here ; they refer chiefly to the varied appearance of shadows, longer, shorter, imperceptible, or unusually directed, at different times, but under nearly similar angles of illumination ; to unaccount- able changes in the forms of mountains; and to the discovery, and subsequent invisibility, of ridges or hillocks in well- known and often observed situations. There can be no doubt that, as he was himself aware, a slight difference in the con- ditions of illumination and reflection may produce a very dis- proportionate change of aspect; still, there is much weight in his remark that this must not be pushed too far, or we should find similar variations occurring from the moon’s progress during the course of a single observation extended through several hours, which has never yet been found to take place. To one source of error he was perhaps not sufficiently alive— the increased perception of the true nature of a distant or obscure object, in proportion as it becomes familiar to the eye. It certainly does not seem at all likely that the crater e was ever seen in actual eruption by Schroéter, as he was inclined to suppose ; but we must bear in mind that, as eruptions of some kind—whatever that kind may be—must have taken place upon the moon times without number, there is no antecedent impos- sibility in such an idea. It must be admitted that the region is @ curious one, and well adapted for an inquiry which may be worth the while of future observers, whether all these variations are due solely to differences of illumination and libration, or whether there may be, as Schréter supposed, occasional modi- fications of a lunar amosphere, capable under certain circum- stances of impeding or perverting our view; and it would be unphilosophical and unwise to allow the greater probability of the former alternative to stifle the inquiry. In order to bring out of it any successful result, Schroter’s observations would lead us, not merely to note the aspect of the crater e in alk | positions relative to the sun and earth, but also to examine the proportionate lengths of the shadows of the other mountains in the group, and the first and last appearance of their summits at the time of lunar sunrise or sunset. My own observations. have not been sufficiently consecutive to be of real service in establishing anything. To the general reader much that has: 4 The Moon. 203 been here brought forward may appear of trifling interest, but as there is reason to believe that selenography is now receiving a powerful impulse, it may be useful to the student to know what difficulties and uncertainties may attend his own path, and what has, or has not, been done to remove them. He will not regret having made acquaitance with them at his first essay. We must not omit some other curious observations which include a more extended range. Such was that of Schroter, who upon one ocasion, when the moon was 2d. 23h. old, found the whole W. portion of the “‘ Mare” unusually bright, and of a yellowish hue, so as scarcely to be distinguished from its mountain border; this appearance, unprecedented here, or in any similar level, fading away entirely into the ordinary grey on the opposite side of the plain. At another time, the moon’s age being 6d. 7h., he saw ‘an incredible, innumerable multitude” of bright specks im the grey surface, chiefly in places where no known object existed. A subsequent examination of other grey plains, under a similar incidence of light, showed him nothing equally remarkable. More than two years afterwards, however, under avery different and almost vertical illumination, the moon being 11d. 19h. old, the scene was renewed; the plain was so interwoven and variegated, like the veins of an animal, or an irregular tissue, with streaks of light, and actually innumerable bright points, that it would have been difficult for the most skilful artist to give a sufficiently striking representation of such a magnificent scene. ‘Two days after- wards this beautiful effect had disappeared, and nothing of the kind could be traced in the Mare Serenitatis on the neighbour- ing levels, where the sun had by that time attained a corres- sponding elevation.* No other similar instance was ever recorded by him; but the following from B. and M. (who characteristically ignore what he has described) was eyi- dently one of the same nature. ‘The moon being between 10d. and 11d. old, they noticed that the greater part of a white streak which runs from Procluws (No. 12 in the Index-Map) towards Picard B was resolved, through an area of 230 miles by 28, into fully 150 points of light, like a jet of water dispersed into spray—the whole plain appearing also more speckled than usual. I was once (1832, July 4) so fortunate as to witness something of the kind, about the time of first quarter, when the whole plain, notwithstanding the imperfection of my instru- ment—a fluid achromatic of four inches, upon Barlow’s plan— was seen beautifully mottled with light and shade, a spot at the N. extremity nearly rivalling the brightness of Proclus. It is * But from which the rays would be reflected at a very different angle to the spectator—a circumstance which Schréter does not notice. 204. The Moon. certainly not easy to account for the infrequency and uncer- tainty of such observations. B. and M. could occasionally perceive, in very clear air, a multitude of the minutest points just on the night-side of the terminator, indicating a surface less perfectly level than it might otherwise appear. They could trace also, from their shadows, ridges of about 60 feet in height, and 23 to 4 or 5 miles wide. There are many more considerable ridges in the plain, running generally from N. to §., branching and reuniting, rising to knolls at their intersections, and sometimes enclosmg circular hollows. The remarkable peculiarity to which Schroter paid so much attention, as existing everywhere in the moon, that these ridges form lines of communication between more conspicuous objects, is not without examples here. A few other features remain to be described. Olbers dis-* covered, with a 3-inch Dollond, in 1794, two minute craters between Picard and Condorcet. Five more of very trifling depth are mentioned by B. and M. in the same region, but not drawn, having been detected after the publication of this part ofthemap. The Mare Crisiwm, mdeed, is executed altogether in an inferior way, as though it had been an early attempt. They have omitted a few minute craters figured by Schréter near the W. and N. border; and many of these objects are of such dif- ficult visibility that discrepancies must here cause no surprise. Nevertheless, insignificant as they may appear, they are of much value to the selenographer, as they admit of close com- parison with regard to relative size, and consequently afford an especially fair prospect of discovering the progress—should it exist—of eruptive action. Picard d, a crater discovered by Cassini at the S. end of the serpentine ridge, was noticed by Schréter to be of extra- ordinary depth, deeper than Picard, from its long retention of shade.* Immediately 8. of it lies a curious object first per- ceived by him, an ancient looking ring with a central mound, resembling much a walled plain—such as we shall be introduced to hereafter—in a state of degradation and decay. He could not always find it afterwards, though under corresponding circumstances, and hence was led to infer some atmospheric obscuration. Although B. and M. have introduced abundant details in this district, some of which I have not seen, they failed to notice that the curve which the winding ridge, so fre- quently mentioned, forms towards the HK. is in reality the half of a circle (projected of course as an ellipse), of which I have distinctly made out the remainder, as sketched in the diagram. * This observer has noticed that many of the smaller class of craters are so remarkable on this account that there is cause to suspect some illusion, as true shade could hardly remain so long. This may be a point worthy of attention. The Moon. 205 It is of a character which we shall not unfrequently meet with in our lunar travels, resembling a bowl nearly full of a fluid into which it is obliquely smking ; in point of size and age it seems more the counterpart than is represented in the diagram, of the circle already mentioned on the other side of Picard d. I first perceived it, 1863, Oct. 28, and have since repeatedly seen it, under such varied incidence of light, that I cannot doubt its reality, or understand how it is to be satisfactorily reconciled with B. and M’s. detail here. They have also omitted two very minute craters, one a little way 8.S.H.of e, where they, Schréter, and myself at other times have seen an eleva- tion; the other between my ring and Picard d, lymg apparently on the serpentine ridge, in a part which was not visible when . diagram was made, but is readily seen under the opposite illumination. The pass or gateway through the H. mountains is guarded, as J have several times noticed, by two small craters, both seen by Schréter, but one only clearly represented by B. and M. That on the N. side was not perceived by the former observer till after he had had the spot under his eyes for more than three years; yet there is no reason to suppose it new; such oversights are not very uncommon. B. and M. have remarked it as a singular fact, that no central hill is to be found in any of the craters in or around this great plain, the nearest so characterized being Taruntius and Ma- erobius (91 and 11 in the Index-Map), if we except a feeble and somewhat uncertain trace in Azout. I have, however, entered a low central hill, as visible in Picard, and another more distinct in Picard A, with a 3%, -inch aperture, 1834, Sept. 19; and with my present telescope I distinctly found, 1868, Oct. 28, that both these craters have interiors rough with hillocks, especially A, which has an irregular mound lying on the inner slope of its N. end; the effect being much as though masses of soft mud had been thrown at random into the interior. Gruithuisen states that near Picard some re- markable white ridges are to be seen, in part as straight and regular as artificial walls. In consequence of the great differences resulting from hbration, no certain age of the moon can be mentioned as the most suitable for the study of this region. Opportunities must be carefully watched in the young crescent and the early wane. A grand effect is produced during the progress of the lunar sunset, when the great boundary mountains on each side of the H. gateway fling their ponderous shadows to the termina- tor, inclosing a small portion of the plain, which still enjoys the declining ray. This has been well figured by Schriter, and I have seen it 3d. 4h. after the full moon. 206 Planets of the Month ; Double Star; Occultations. PLANETS OF THE MONTH. We have so long been without the charm of planets in our evening skies, that we shall hail their return with pleasure during the present month. Jupiter and Saturn have now come back to us. Saturn will be in opposition to the sun on April 4, and therefore on the meridian at midnight, between a and y Virginis, but some way N. of the joming line. His rising will be then about 63h. The ring is becoming broader every season— its proportions being now about 433” by 29”, so that its mar- vellous details are coming fairly ito view, while the intersection of its outline with that of the ball renders the combined form more elegant than it would be with a wider opening. Jupiter rises later, about 95h.in the middle of the month, and has, unfortunately, a considerable 8. declination among the stars Inbra. Those who are interested in the study of his features, or the transits of his satellites, will nevertheless, no doubt, attempt to renew their observations. ‘The transits before mid- night will be the following :—April 8th, I. will leave the disc at 11h. 44m.—10th, the shadow of II. will enter at 11h. 12m., the satellite following at 12h. 41m.—15th, I. will enter at 11h. 18m., its shadow being already on the disc. Mercury will be at his greatest H. elongation at the end of the month; and though not in the most favourable part of his orbit, the great eccentricity of which makes much difference, yet, having considerable N. declination, there will be a chance of his being fairly visible in the evening twilight. DOUBLE STAR. ; Saturn will be lingering so near one of these objects during this month, that it would seem strange not to include it in our list. It will be found a little sf the planet, and is— 123. 9 Virginis. 71. 3452. 44 and 9 (1831715). Pale white and violet. An optical pair, rendered triple by the addition of a third 10 mag. star, at 65” and 295°, It is a pretty though minute object. I thought the closer attendant greenish or bluish, with 3 j,inches, 1856°35 ; but a larger aper- ture is necessary to estimate the colour of such feeble points, and I have not examined it with my present means. OCCULTATIONS. - April 11th. X? Orionis, 6 mag., will be hidden from 6h. 28m. to 7h. 88m.—20th, g Virginis, 6 mag., from 8h. 40m. to 9h. 48m,—22nd, B. A.C. 4896, 6 mag., from 9h. 23m, to 10h. 25m. The Hatinguisher Mosses. 207 THE EXTINGUISHER MOSSES. BY M. G. CAMPBELL. Tae Enealypte, or Extinguisher Mosses, form a very natural group, which, notwithstanding the extremely variable peristome, are easily distinguished from all others by the structure and com- parative size of the calyptra, which is cylindrico-campanulate below, longer than the capsule, and with a rather long rostrum, like a little tower or round spire at the apex, while at the base 1b 1s usually fringed, torn, or crenate, and is persistent, defying wind and rain, and falling away only with the lid when the spores are perfectly ripe. These spores are granular, and of a yellowish- brown colour. The species may be found growing on dry or moderately moist rocks, and on walls and stones, especially those of calcareous origin. The stems are branched, here and there beset with radicles, erect, bearing terminal seta, and perennial ; the fruit-stalk is so firm and tenacious as to remain on the stems for several seasons. The generic name 1s derived from év in, and xadv7tos, covered, shrouded, or enveloped, 7.¢., covered in, in allusion to the persistent, bell- shaped calyptra entirely enclosing the capsule. The most generally met with is fincalypta vulgaris, or the common ex- timguisher moss, of which we give a considerably magnified illustration, with a naked capsule still more magni- fied, and having on its lid, with long tapering beak. The moss may be found growing on stone walls, also on banks and rocks, especially such as are of calcareous nature. It has rather short stems, rarely half an inch long, but branched and radi- culose. Its leaves are erect, more or less spreading, and, in general, more or less apiculate, though in one variety they are obtuse and concave at the apex; the margin plane, crenulate, or scabrous with papillae; the nerve strong, purplish, often more or less excurrent, but sometimes ceasing below the apex, and the leaves are somewhat crisped when dry. The capsule is subcylindri- cal, smooth when moist, but frequently Encik eieiereeaeen more or less plicated or rugose when dry; of thin texture, and somewhat tapering from the base. The annulus is simple and persistent, and being coloured at an 208 The Hzxtinguisher Mosses. early stage, is easily seen through the semi-transparent, greenish calyptra, which is papillose at the apex; and said to be entire at the base, though usually more or less torn in its separation from the vaginula, but it is never fringed as in Hnculypta ciliata ; and is entire in the sense of being of one piece, self composed, as well as in the botanical sense of being without teeth or notches in the margin; it resembles a little fairy extinguisher placed over a miniature wax-taper, as much as to say, “‘ You must not be lighted till the boisterous winds of March, and the tearful days of April, give place to serener skies and a dryer atmosphere ;” but during these months, March and April, the fruit is ripening, and towards the end of April or early in May, extinguisher and lid, which have been such close friends during all the rough weather, fall off together, and give the now matured spores, which are rather large for the size of » the moss, leave to escape and develop the functions of vitality that lurk within them. The peristome is frequently absent, and at all times is extremely fagacious and fragile; when per- fect, it consists of sixteen teeth, pale and sub-erect, seldom rising much above the orifice of the capsule. There are several varieties, shghtly differmg from each other, one differing only in an elongated stem and larger leaves, another in having the leaves piliferous, another in having an oblique capsule, but all so nearly resembling the normal form, as to be easily recognized for Hncalypta vulgaris. From the same patch, a few yards in extent, and growing on a stone wall on the Cotteswold range of hills, we have gathered some specimens with a full mouth of sixteen teeth, others with one, two, or three only, and others again quite destitute of peristome. _ The calyptra attains its full size before its separation from the yaginula, and even before the fruit becomes appreciable at the summit of the fruit-stalk, which is coiled up within the calyptra in this early stage, and it is interesting to witness its development. At first the base of the calyptra is turned up inwardly upon a little mass of spongy tissue, which crowns the depressed conical summit of the vaginula, and when torn away by advancing growth, it is found too firmly adherent to come clean off, so that it leaves a circular fragment from its base, like a little coronet, to crown the vaginula. The reddish fruit-stalk, which is about half an inch long, twists towards the right. In Encalypta ciliata, or the fringed extinguisher moss, the fruit-stalk twists towards the left, the vaginula is sub-cylindri- cal, and the pale yellowish, smooth calyptra is distinctly fringed at the base, the fringe being derived from the spongy conical mass of cellular tissue which surmounts the vaginula, and, therefore, being of laxer texture, and paler than the calyptra The Extinguisher Mosses. 209 itself. This frmge is inflexed when moist, and is sometimes deciduous. . The capsule of H. ciliata is of a bright chestnut colour, sub- cylindrical, very smooth, slightly constricted below the mouth, but without an annulus, and haying thicker walls than those of fH. vulgaris. The teeth of the peristome, lanceolate in form, and sixteen in number, are marked with transverse bars, some- what prominent externally, and inserted below the orifice of the capsule; they are of a reddish hue, converge when moist, but remain erect in a dry state. The spores are granular, and the fruit-stalk, instead of bemg reddish as in Hi. vulgaris, is yellow. The stems are loosely tufted, about half an inch long or more, branched and bearing oblong-ovate leaves of a brighter green than those of H. vulgaris, broader and less crisped when dry, the margin plane in the upper part, distinctly recurved below, somewhat crenulate at the apex, and with an excurrent nerve forming a slight mucro. The fruiting season of H. ciliata is two months later than that of H. vulgaris, viz., June and July. It is found on rocks in. the mountainous parts of England, Scotland, Wales, and Ire- land. In both the inflorescence is monoicous, as is the case with Hncalypta commutata, and Hncalyptu rhabdocarpa. H. commutata, or the sharp-leaved extinguisher moss, has also branched and radiculose stems, which are slender and about an inch long, with ovate-lanceolate leaves, concave, acuminate, slightly unduiated, more or less spreading and squarrose from an erect sheathing base, and having an excurrent nerve. The capsule is smooth, sub-cylindrical, of thinnish texture, and seated on a reddish fruit-stalk. It has a simple annulus, but no peristome; and the calyptra is smooth all over, jagged and uneven at the base, but not frmged. The vaginula, as in Ei. vulgaris, is crowned by a conical cap of spongy tissue, whose base is bordered by a circlet torn from the base of the calyptra. The barren flowers of //. ciliata are found near the peri- chetium, they are gemmiform, but only three leaved ; those of FH. commutata are six-leaved, and are either axillary, or terminal on a branch, accompanied by numerous antheridia and para- physes; but H. commutata is sufficiently distinguished by its taper-pointed squarrose leaves, which are its unfailing charac- teristics. It appears to be limited in distribution, but grows near the summits of the Scottish mountains, and fruits in July and August. Eincalypta rhabdocarpa or the rib-fruited extinguisher moss, like the rest of the genus, has branched and radiculose stems, about half an inch long or rather more. “Its leaves are mode- rately spreading, lanceolate or ovate-oblong, acuminate and 210 The Hxtinguisher Mosses. mucronate, or sometimes piliferous, concave, with a nerve thinner and paler than in H. vulgaris, generally exeurrent, but sometimes ceasing below the apex. The capsule is of an oblong form, striated, somewhat apophysate, ribbed and strongly furrowed when dry; the broad, longitudinal, coloured strize distinguishing it from all others. The fruit-stalk is red and twists towards the right. The calyptra is conico-campanulate, yellowish, scabrous or rugged at the apex, and shghtly jagged or uneven at the base. The annulus is simple and the peri- stome persistent, consisting of sixteen lanceolate, firm, trans- versely barred teeth, which are sometimes marked with a medial line, as if to show them to be double. They are inserted below the orifice of the capsule, and their position is erect when dry. The vaginula resembles that of H. vulgaris, with its little crown arising from the same cause; but the calyptra of rhabdocarpa is shorter, wider, and of a darker hue, the leaves more acute and tapering, and the fruiting season is July and August ; its habitats, the Scotch mountains, and Ben Bulben, Ireland. The only remaining British species is the spiral-fruited extinguisher moss, Encalypta streptocarpa, whose inflorescence, unlike the other species, is dioicous. In this the elongated stems, from one to two inches long, or even more, are still branched and radiculose. It grows in shady situations, on limestone or mortared walls, etc., sometimes on chalky banks, or on a marly soil, often in extensive patches, but is rarely found in fruit. The walls of a bridge near Dunkeld are mentioned as one of its fruiting habitats. It has also been found in various localities in Derbyshire, and near Bolton Bridge in Yorkshire. It fruits in the month of August. 2 From its great length of stem, compared with the other members of the genus, one of our muscologists named it Encalypta grandis, but streptocarpa, from otperros, writhed, twisted, or twined, and xapzros, fruit, is far too graphic to be superseded by any other, its sub-cylindrical capsule being, when ripe and dry, marked with eight or nine spiral furrows, and ultimately twisted in the same direction towards the left. It has a compound, dehiscent annulus, and a double peristome, inserted very little below the orifice, the outer one consisting of sixteen long, narrow, nearly filiform, nodulose teeth, almost half as long as the capsule, marked with a medial line, and confluent at the base. They are of a purplish red, and erect, but slightly reflexed when dry. The inner peristome is formed of yellowish-brown ciliz, which alternate with the outer teeth, are about half their length, adhere closely to them, and unite in their lower half into a plicated membrane. ‘The spores are small and smooth, the barren-flowered plants more | . Our Atmosphere and the Hther of Space. 211 slender than the fertile ones, their flowers gemmiform and terminal. The leaves are sub-erect, ligulate, or strap-shaped, obtuse and cuculate or hooded, at the apex, slightly crisped, or twisted when dry, with a purplish nerve ceasing at or near the apex; the upper leaves of a light green, the lower brownish, the pericheetial leaves approaching to obovate at the base, lanceolate subulate above, and erect. The calyptra is longer than in most of the species, sub- cylindrical, rostellate, approaching to subulate, rough and spinulose at the apex, lacinated, at first somewhat fringed at the base, of a yellowish brown colour, and coriaceous con- sistence. Its lacinated base arising from the same cause as that of E. ciliata, 1.e., from the spongy tissue crowning the vaginula, and which being of less firm consistence than the calyptra is torn away with it. The spiral ribs of the capsule are more deeply coloured, and are of firmer texture than the interstices between them. Thus we have attempted to describe all the hitherto known British species of this well-marked and interesting genus; and we trust that in so doing, we shall have furnished work for some microscopes, and pleasure for their possessors. OUR ATMOSPHERE AND THE ETHER OF SPACH. In the Inreniectuan Opsmrver, vol. ii. p. 408, we laid before our readers the views of M. Quetelet concerning the great probable height of our atmosphere, and its division into two parts, the lower one being the seat of much movement and agitation, the upper portion being extremely hght, stable, and probably of different chemical composition. In Cosmos (18th Feb., 1864) we find the following report of remarks on this subject by Father Secchi the Roman astronomer :— “The shooting stars observed at Rome years ago, with the aid of the telegraph, have given an approximative estimate of height of eighty kilométres at the least.* That indicates a much greater height of the atmosphere than is ordinarily supposed. But what is the composition of this atmosphere ? That is impossible to define. The phenomena of ordinary electricity carefully studied at the time of auroras may afford us some hght. I am of opinion that the idea, which is beginning to be accepted, that auroras depend upon dis- charges of atmospheric electricity in elevated regions is correct, and if so it will be very interesting to determine the * The kilométre is rather more than six-tenths of a mile (0'6214). VOL, V.—NO, III. Q 212 Our Atmosphere and the Ether of Space. using the telegraph as an aid.” ; Cosmos also gives a letter from M. Hansteen of Christiana, to M. Quetelet, in which he says:—* Your ‘last article on shooting stars and their place of appearance, has particularly interested me, on account of the idea put forth by you and approved by Sir John Herschel, H. A. Newton, and Aug. de la Rive, that beyond the lower atmosphere in which we live—and which you call the unstable atmosphere — there exists a second atmosphere three times as high—and which you term the stable atmosphere—of different composition, much lighter, and therefore, so to say, more igneous. It is only in this latter atmosphere that auroras manifest their luminosity. The upper atmosphere in which auroras and shooting stars . appear as luminous bodies, may be nothing else than a very’ rarified hydrogen, very light and very inflammable. The period of revolution of Encke’s comet, which diminishes one- tenth of a day at each revolution, suggests the existence of a resisting medium, which is accounted for by supposing the presence of a certain ether, the nature of which is unknown. May not this ether be very rarified hydrogen diffused through space.” The suggestions of M. Hansteen, though interesting, are open to certain objections. Why does he imagine the upper atmosphere to consist of hydrogen? Is it simply because that is the lightest body we are acquainted with on the surface of our globe? There is no reason whatever to suppose that the lightest body we know must resemble in composition, or be identical with, any lighter body that may exist somewhere else under totally different conditions. Nor is there any reason for supposing that the inflammability of hydrogen would be aug- mented by enormous rarefaction. | When a body is called inflammable we should remember that the term is not very precise. It is customary to speak of certain bodies as being either combustible, or supporters of combustion; but the following vemarks of Professor Miller place this subject in a clear light and show how easily the terms become convertible. He tells us* that “a striking experiment may be performed with hydrogen, which shows how purely conventional are the terms ‘combustible’ and ‘ supporters of combustion.’ Let a tall bottle with a narrow neck be filled with hydrogen gas; through a cork which passes easily into the neck of the bottle, fit a jet connected with a gas-holder containing oxygen; place the bottle mouth downwards and set fire to the hydrogen, then immediately insert the cork and jet through which a stream of * Elements of Chemistry, Part II, p, 48. Second edition. height of this meteor as seen from neighbouring places, and Our Atmosphere and the Ether of Space. 218 oxygen is gently issuing. The flame will appear to attach itself to the oxygen tube, and the jet of oxygen will be burning in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Combustion in fact occurs at the place where the two gases first came into contact. Suppose for a moment that the earth’s atmosphere had contained hydrogen instead of oxygen; oxygen would have appeared to us in the light of a combustible gas; hydrogen in that of a supporter of combustion.” The term “ more igneous” may not be intelligible without considering the sense in which Sir John Herschel employed it, in the letter to M. Quetelet, from which M. Hansteen adopted it. Sir John said, that the great elevation of shooting stars above the earth ‘‘ leads to the conjecture of an upper aerial atmosphere, lighter and so to say more igneous.” Mr. Alexander Herschel has provided us with some remarks on this subject. He observes, “that according to the calculations of Thompson and Joule a body moving with a velocity of thirty-nine miles per second will heat the air, of whatever density, im immediate contact with it, two million degrees. Surely such velocities are more likely to exist in the highest and thinnest strata of the atmosphere, than in the lower denser parts, where storms and clouds, etc., are prepared, and in this sense the upper atmos- phere may be called the igneous atmosphere, because it is more exposed to such igneous catastrophes from which the lower strata is happily defended.” If we consider the effects of heat and pressure in modify- ing the condition of matter, it will appear probable that there are limits to the existence of compounds haying definite properties, both in a pressure range and a temperature range —that is to say, that no compound could be heated, or cooled, beyond a certain point without its becoming decomposed, or having its particles re-arranged into a new substance. And also that no compound could be condensed, or rarified, beyond certain limits without undergoing decomposition or change. The grounds for conceiving the earth’s atmosphere to be only forty or fifty miles high were incomplete. It was supposed that at about that distance from the earth the elasticity of the air and the force of gravity balanced each other. M. Quetelet now shows reason for believing that an upper atmosphere exists, and he assigns to it a different composition. May it not result from a resolution of the earth’s lower atmosphere into some other form of matter? Oxygen and nitrogen may be compound bodies, and may be decomposed under such remarkable conditions of temperature, pressure, etc. yen if we regard them as simple substances, we have no right to limit their capacity for existing under different conditions, and with very different properties. The difficulty of defining a species 214 Our Atmosphere and the Ether of Space. extends to chemistry, and it is far from easy to say what con- stitutes oxygen, for example. In zoology the idea of heredi- tariness, or common descent, comes into the species idea; in chemistry identity of constitution and properties is sufficient. But is ozone identical in constitution with oxygen, of which it is called an allotropicform? IfM. Soret is right* in affirm- ing that it is composed of a plurality of oxygen atoms arranged in a particular way, we must be either prepared to regard it as another substance, or to deny that the mode in which atoms are aggregated and the special properties thus developed, give rise to different species of substances. It may be said that ozone is not after all sufficiently unlike oxygen to require a separate name; but what of antozone? Schdnbein considers that when one portion of oxygen ig converted into ozone another portion passes into the state of antozone, which differs in properties from ordinary oxygen and from ozone. Antozone and ozone he considers in opposite polar conditions, and that when they come together they neutralize each other and produce ordinary oxygen. If so they act like distinct and different substances, exhibiting an affinity for each other. M. Hansteen’s supposition that the ether, or fluid conceived to exist in space, is like the upper atmosphere of our earth is worth consideration ; but if so, that upper atmosphere must be capable of the requisite attenuation without being changed into another substance. Is it not a more probable supposition that however slowly the process may take place, all the bodies that swim in space contribute to the space atmosphere or ether, which would thus be composed of the most volatile’ and attenuated forms the materials of the various globes can assume when their normal cohesive and affinity forces are diminished or over-balanced by repulsive forces or new affinities ? Does it not seem improbable that each globe should retain for ever all the particles that it started with? Is not a circulation of matter more consonant with analogy? Why should the space atmosphere not only be added to, but taken from? Can our sun and all other suns be burning, or condensing it? The enormous temperature usually assigned to the solar photosphere may dissociate ordinary compounds, and develope powerful affinities between photosphere matter and the space atmos- phere, and if it condensed millions of cubic miles with sufficient volocity, enormous heat would be produced. With reference to the ether, or space atmosphere, it may be | observed that the quantity of matter which is contained in a given volume of it, may not afford any measure of its resistance to planetary motion. In a paper on molecular mechanics, by the Rey. Joseph Bayma, published in the Proceedings of the * See INTELLECTUAL OxsERYER, vol. iv. p. 308. ‘ — Anchoring Mollusks. 215 Royal Society, No. 16, that gentleman affirms that ‘if a body does not contain any repulsive elements, it cannot cause any retardation in the movement of an impinging body ;” and other reasons might be assigned to account for the small retardation of moving bodies without assuming a tenuity calculated from the known properties of atmospheric air. Mr. Bayma’s theory is not the only one that might account for the resistance offered by the space-atmosphere to a moving body, not being proportionate to the actual quantity of matter contained in a given bulk of it. What is called vis inertia is not, as we have remarked in another paper, simply do-nothing- ness, but the result of active forces, one of which is gravitation, and we have certainly no right to assume that gravitation is an attribute or property of matter under all conditions. _ It may be one of an unknown number of correlative forces, and the force which acts as gravitation under one set of conditions, may appear in another character when the conditions are changed. These speculations may be dreams and nothing more; but a little dreaming is good for scientific progress, provided the process of dreaming is not vainly conceived to be a process of roof. As our object in publishing these conjectures is to stimulate thought and inquiry, we will either print in extenso, or give an account of any important communications we may receive on any of the points discussed. ANCHORING MOLLUSKS. BY W. NEWTON MACCARTNEY, Cor. Secretary Glasgow Naturalists’ Society. Ar the end of the last century the rage for conchology reached its climax, and then slowly declined. In its place the study of malacology engrossed the attention of many of those who had only gathered shells for the beauty of their form and the brightness of their colours. The possession of a cabinet of shells fifty years ago (and in many cases, even now) did not bestow upon the owner any knowledge of their structure or habits, and it was only when he gathered, observed, and dis- sected that he gained that essential knowledge which, while benefiting himself, would help the progress of the science. The shell to the conchologist may be of interest, but the animal which inhabits the shell will give a more enduring pleasure to the malacologist who studies its structure and observes its habits. During the rage of shell-collecting, when a Carinaria 216 Anchoring Mollusks. brought 100 guineas, and Conus gloria-maris half that sum, the parts of the animal which are the subject of this paper could not be studied, as, invariably before they were passed into the cabinet of the shell collector, they were cleaned from the specimen. However, in our times, when the animal is studied, as well as the shell admired, these organs by which the animal anchors itself may without difficulty be examined, and cannot fail to interest the observer. The byssus of the mussel, and the pedicle of the lamp- shells, are considered to be of little, if any, importance in their study, and consequently not bemg much examined, some little things require to be explained, and some misapprehensions cleared away. Se The importance of the cables in both these classes of» mollusca, cannot be over-estimated by the paleontologist; for, in his explorations, he often disentombs large numbers of brachwopoda which have lived and died on the spot where he finds them. He is disposed to wonder why such quantities have gathered together, and it is only when he finds them to belong to the class of shells which anchor themselves to the sea- bottom that his amazement ceases. They can by means of their pedicle resist the scattering tendencies of the wayes, and not being disturbed, the places where they have taken up their abode becomes densely populated, while spots not very far distant cannot boast a specimen. ‘To the naturalists the know- ledge of the mussel’s habits sufficiently explain the colonjes of them which occur in places suitable for their development. During the geologic ages the lampshells, or Terebratulide, existed in great numbers, and in many cases the opening by which the pedicle protruded is distinctly visible. ‘Then, as now, they attached themselves to rocks, stones, branches of corals, and every ‘coigne of vantage,” and there hung freely suspended, swaying to and fro with the pulsations of the mighty ocean. In our still and deep lochs they are often brought up in the dredge, and if the locality is suitable, that is, of a cal- careous silt, or muddy bottom, every small stone, or large shell, will have these little lampshells clinging to it. These shells are now but meagrely represented, when we consider the immense multitudes which swarmed in the seas during the deposition of the carboniferous limestone. ‘There the sepulchres of countless thousands belonging to many species may be opened in every quarry. The mussel, by means of its byssus,is able to remain secure on rocky coasts, where otherwise it would be dashed to pieces by the first rude storm. ‘The fisherman, who uses them for bait, chooses a calm summer’s day to place upon his new mussel farm the boat-load which he has forced to emigrate to “pastures Anchoring Mollusks. 217 new.” He knows that stormy weather would result in hig emigrants being driven on shore; so he chooses his time, that the mussels may spin their cable and anchor securely. The owner of piers also requires to tend the crop of mussel care- fully, so that they may cover the wooden piles, and thus protect them from the attacks of the boring shells. Some people think that they are useless on the wooden piers, and con- sequently scrape them off, considering that they destroy the piles, and eat into the wood. Let it not be understood that the pedicle of the lampshell and the byssus of the mussel perform the same function. The pedicle, like the byssus, anchors the shell, but, unlike the byssus, assists the pedicle in closing and opening the shell. It is a fleshy cable, composed of fibres which are contractile. This cable is attached at one end to the stone by a kind of glutinous substance, and at the other to the upper or ventral valve. Within a little distance from the foramen, or little hole through which it passes into the shell, muscles are attached. These join. on to the pedicle near to the point of emergence, and are also attached to the dorsal valve by the other end. The hinge of the shell is at the foramen. When the animal is at rest, and not disturbed, the pedicle is uncontracted, and the shell open: The cable being at its longest range, allows the shell to hang free, and to have a pretty wide range; but whenever danger approaches instantly the pedicle contracts, the shell by that action shuts, and at the same time darts backward a little towards its anchorage, out of the way of the intruder. The pedicle contracts, and the muscles which are attached to the pedicle contract at the same moment, and. the shell is fast closed, to be opened when danger is past. In the mussel the byssus acts no part similar to this. When once it is spun it is lifeless. The visitor to the seashore will find that it is made up of a great many small threads, which have taken avery firm hold. These are connected with the interior of the shell, and are extremely strong. The question suggests itself, how are these threads spun, and how do they fasten to the rock? The mussel has no spinnarets like the spider or the silkworm. That there is a sticky secretion no one can doubt; but of what it is composed, and how it is secreted, is yet to be discovered. A Glasgow naturalist has observed the process of plating the cable, which may be briefly described. The foot was protruded, fat and fleshy, and touch- ing the side of a glass jar, it remained for a time in contact. After withdrawal nothing was noticed for a moment, but then slowly a little thread became visible, and the first thread of the cable was laid, which was followed by another, and another, as the foot touched the side of the glass. There must, we think, 218 Comets. be a secreting surface either in the foot or easy of access to it ; and that secretion hardens and blackens by exposure to the water. The threads are attached to the shell, and have no connection with the internal economy of the animal. The byssus spun by the Pinna has been used with silk, and spun into some articles of dress. That of the great horse-mussel is exceedingly fine, and if it could be obtained in sufficient abun- dance might be used in commerce. In conclusion, could not a series of experiments be made on the mussel (Mytilus edulis), to discover how it spins its cable, and where it gets the material? By discovering this, we could then with certainty understand how the Lima and other shells make their nest, for they also use silken fibres to bind the materials of which their house is built. Ne COMETS. AN ACCOUNT OF ALL THE COMETS WHOSE ORBITS HAVE NOT BEEN CALCULATED. BY G, F. CHAMBERS, (Continued from page 384, vol. iv.) 663. On September 27 a comet 2° long was seen near € Bodtis. On September 29 it had disappeared.—(Ma-tuoan- lin.) 667. On May 24 a comet was seen in the N.E., between Auriga, the Pleiades, and Taurus.—(Gaubil.) On June 12 it disappeared.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 668. In May or June a comet was seen for a few days in Auriga.—(De Mailla, vi. 145.) Is it certain that this comet differs from the preceding f—(Pingré, i. 331.) 676. [i.] On ee 4 a comet 5° long was discovered to the 8. of a and € Virginis.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 676. [ii.] ‘In the month of August a comet showed itself in the HE. for three months, from the time of cock-crowing till morning. Its rays penetrated the heavens; all nations beheld with admiration its rising; at length, returning upon itself, it disappeared,”—(Anastas, Historia Heclesiastica ; Paul Diacon. v. 31.) On September 4 a comet appeared near to a and B Geminorum; it moved towards the N.E. Its tail, at first 3° long, afterwards increased to 30°, and pointed towards » and y« Urse Majoris. On November 1 it had disappeared.— (Ma-tuoan-lin ; Gaubil.) . Comets. 219 681. On October 17 a comet 50° long was seen near a Herculis; gradually diminishing in size it moved towards a Aquilz, and disappeared on November 3.—(Gaubil.) 683. On April 20 a comet was seen near « Auriga. On May 15 it had disappeared.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 684 [i.] On September 6 a comet 10° was seen long in the evening towards the W. On October 9 it had disappeared.— (Gaubil.) Hind remarks that this single account will tolerably well describe the position which Halley’s comet must have been in at its return to perihelion in this year; so, doubtless, this was that celebrated body.—(Comp. to Almanac, 1860, p. 88.) 684 [u.] On November 11 a star like a half-moon was seen in the N.—Ma-tuoan-lin. 707. On November 16 a comet appeared in the W.; on December 18 it had ceased to be visible-—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 708. [i.] On March 31 a comet appeared between the Pleiades and Musca.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 708. [ii.] On September 21 a comet appeared within the circle of perpetual apparition.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) , 711. In the 92nd year of the Hegira a comet endued with a sensible motion appeared for eleven days.—(Haly. Inber Ptolemei Comment.) The year 92 of the Hegira lasted from 710, Oct. 29, to 711, Oct. 18. . 712. In August a comet emerged from the W., and passed to near 8 Leonis, etc.—(De Mailla, vi. 199.) 716. A comet of a terrible aspect, with its tail directed to- wards the Pole, is said to been seen this year, but we have only a modern authority for the statement.—(Sabellicus, Omnia Opera, Ennead. viii. lib. vii., Basileze, 1560.) 729. Several writers speak of two comets visible for four- teen days in the month of January, the one after sunset and the other before sunrise.—(Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, v. ; Herveld, Chronicon Historie Germanice.) It is easy to see that a single comet with a Right Ascension not differing much from that of the Sun, but with a high North Declination, would be seen both after sunset and before sunrise, and thus fulfil the statement of the chroniclers. Donati’s great comet of 1858 was so visible for several weeks in the month of Sep- tember of that year. 730. On August 29 a comet was seen in Auriga; on September 7 it spread its light over the Hyades and Pleiades. —(Gaubil.) Ma-tuoan-lin says that the comet of September 7 was not the same as that of August 29. 738. On April 1 a comet was seen within the circle of per- petual apparition. It traversed the square of Ursa Major, and was observed for ten days or more, when clouds interfered. —(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 220 Comets. Ke 744, A great comet was seen in Syria.—(Theophanes, p. 3.) . 762. A comet was seen in the H. like unto a beam.— (Theophanes, p. 363.) “. 767. On January 22 a comet 1° long was seen near a and 8 Delphini. It was visible for three weeks.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 773. On January 17 a great star appeared below the belt of Orion.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 813. “On August 4 a comet was seen, which resembled two moons joined together; they separated, and having taken different forms, at length appeared like a man without a head.” —(Theophanes, p. 423.) In spite of the strangeness of this description, Pingré considers it to be really that of a comet, and thinks it is possible to find an explanation in the comet’s pecu- liar position with regard to the Sun and the Harth.—(Comét. i. 338.) 815. In April or Maya great comet appeared in the vicinity of 6 Leonis.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 817. On February 5, at the second hour of the night, a monstrous comet was seen in Sagittarius.—(Vita Ludovict Pi.) On February 17 the comet was in the Hyades.—(Ma-tuoan- lin.) €21 [i.] On February 27 a comet was seen in Crater. On March 7 it was near ¢ Leonis.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 821 [ii.] In July a comet with a tail 10° long was seen in the Pleiades. After ten days it disappeared.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 828. On September 3 a comet with a tail 2° lone was seen near 7 Bootis.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 834, On October 9 a comet with a tail 10° long was seen near 6 Leonis. It went northwards beyond Coma -Berenicis. On September 7 it had disappeared.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) . 837 [1i.] On September 10 a comet was seen in Aquarius. —(Ma-tuoan-lin ; Boéthius, Scotorwm Historia, x.) 838 [i.] On November 11 a comet was seen near 6 Corvi. —(Ma-tuoan-lin. 838 [ii.] On November 21 a comet was seen in the FH. in the sidereal divisions y Sagittarius, and yw? Scorpio. It ex- tended in the heavens H. and W.; on‘*December 28 it had disappeared.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 839 [i.] On January 1 a comet was seen in Arios.— (Annales Hrancorum Fuldenses.) On February 7 a comet was seen near y Aquariii—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) Pingré thinks the latter could not have been the European comet of January 1.— (Comet. i. 614.) 839 [ii.] On March 12 a comet was seen to the N. of », e, €, € Persei. On April 14 it had disappeared.—(Ma-tuoan- lin.) Proceedings of Learned Societies. 221 840 [i.] On March 20 a comet was seen between the side- real divisions of « and y Pegasi. After three weeks it dis - appeared.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. BY W. B. TEGETMEIER, STATISTICAL SOCIETY.—Feb. 16. Erreots or Oprn-arr Exercise on Loncuviry.—In a very elaborate paper on the reports of the Registrar-General, Mr. Sargant brought forward some remarkable facts, showing the influence of out- door occupation and exercise in lessening the rate of mortality; and that of almost all in-door occupations, long continued, in raising the rate of mortality of the classes following them. The greater longevity of persons living in the country appears almost wholly due to the greater proportion of out-door occupation ; inasmuch as shopkeepers and others following sedentary pursuits in the country have no well-marked vital superiority over the same classes In towns; whereas farm labourers, though exposed to the effects of wet, attain a greater longevity than any class of mechanics working in a confined atmosphere. Hyen scavengers in towns, who are exposed to very great impuri- ‘ties, are long-lived, owing to the vital influence of the open air in which they follow their occupation. MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY .—Feb. 23. PREPARATION OF CaLcrum.—A paper was communicated by Mr. E. Sonstadt on the preparation of the metal Calcium. After describing the well-known difficulties which have hitherto prevented calcium being prepared except in very small quantity, Mr. Sonstadt described his new process, which consists in fusing together iodide of potas- sium and chloride of calcium, The mixture, whilst still liquid, is poured into an iron crucible and permitted to solidify. The mass is then thrown out, and rather less than an equivalent proportion of sodium placed in the bottom of the crucible; the solid mixture of potassium and calcium salts being replaced above it. The cover is then closely luted on, and the crucible heated to redness for a short time. The reaction that ensues is not violent, and the calcium re- mains in the crucible in a solid mass. At the same meeting the practical advantage arising from the improvements of Mr. Sonstadt in the manufacture of the metal Magnesium were shown. Ten grains of magnesium wire were burnt, giving a light which lasted for one minute, during which time an 222 Proceedings of Learned Societies. excellent negative photograph of a bust. by Chantrey was taken by Mr. Brothers. The photographs produced by magnesium light are of a very agreeable character; and as the amount of metal required is very small, the process is not expensive, and it is probable that it may come into general use. - GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.—Feé. 19. Succession or British Mesozorc Srraraw—The President in his anniversary address discussed the breaks in the succession of the British Mesozoic Strata. First, he examined the numerical relations which different classes bore to one another in Paleozoic times, comparing them with their development in secondary epochs. The general conclusion arrived at was that a long interval of time, often, stratigraphically unrepresented, is an invariable accompaniment of a break in the succession of species; and the more special inference was that, in cases of superposition, in proportion as the species are more or less continuous, that is to say, as the break in life is partial or complete, first in the species, but more importantly in the loss of old and the appearance of new genera, so was the interval of time shorter or longer that elapsed between the close of the lower and the commencement of the upper formation. Feb, 24: Recent Discoveries or Furst ImpLements 1x Drirr Deposits iN Hants and Witrs.—Flint implements having recently been found on the sea-shore, about midway between Southampton and Gosport, and also at Fisherton near Salisbury, Mr. J. Evans visited these localities in company with Mr. Prestwich, and gave the results of his observations. After describing the implements from near Southampton, and having shown that their condition is identical with that of the materials composing the gravel capping the adjacent cliff, Mr. Evans maintained the great antiquity of these remains, as proved by the circumstance that the gravel-beds, like those of Reculver, are of fluviatile origin, although now abutting on the sea. Mr. Evans then described the Fisherton implements, and the gravel-pits from which they were obtained. The relation of the high-level gravels (in which the implements were found) to the lower-level gravels of the Valley of the Avon was discussed, and the geological features of the former deposits particularly described; lists of the fossils (including the mammalia and the land and freshwater shells) being also given. Mr. Evans came to the conclusion that the fossils bore evidence of the climate, at the time when they were deposited, having been more rigorous, at any rate in the winter, than it now is; and to this cause he attributed the comparatively greater excavating power of the early Post-pliocene rivers. March 9. On tue Discovery or THE Scares or Preraspisi—Mr. HE. R. Lankester communicated a paper on the Pteraspis, in which the suc- Proceedings of Learned Societies. 223 cessive steps by which the genus was established, and the grounds on which the prevalent opinion as to its ichthyic nature rests, were noticed. The author then proceeded to describe the scales, which have lately being discovered at Cradley, near Malvern, and which alone were required to remove all doubt as to the affinities of the genus: he compared these scales with those of Cephalaspis, to some of which they bear a great resemblance. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—Warch 1. Tue Turory or NaruraL SELECTION AS APPLIED TO THE HuMmAN Races.—In a paper on this subject Mr. Wallace maintained that the theory of natural selection, as influenced by physical structure, could not be applied to explain the origin of the different races of men in the same manner as it could be employed to account for the origin of varieties and species in the lower animals. “In animals a deficiency of any one organ or faculty would of necessity lead to the destruction of the race in the struggle for life. But in man any such deficiency may be supplied by means of the division of labour, by which an individual unfitted for one occupa- tion could follow another; and also by the assistance and sympathy which always existed even in the lowest races of mankind. More- over, by the formation and use of artificial weapons mankind can compensate for any deficiency in strength or agility. These causes acting conjointly remove man from the influence of “natural selection,” as far as regards his physical structure ; but its action is transferred to the mind. Those races with the highest intellectual endowments, capable of the greatest amount of organiza- tion, and the fabrication of the most efficient arms, would of necessity overcome and eventually extirpate the inferior races. Hence it was _ argued that the possession of an intelligent mind removed mankind from the operation of the laws of natural selection ; consequently his physical structure remained unchanged, except as far as regards slight and accidental variations. It was shown that this theory harmonized many of the hitherto conflicting views of anthropologists, by demonstrating why races have so long remained unchanged, and are apparently unchangeable. At the same time, it offers no opposition to the generally received opinion of the unity of the human race. ROYAL INSTITUTION.—WMarch 4. Tar Discrimination or OrGaAnic Bopres By THEIR Oprican Pro- pertis.—In a lecture on the detection of organic bodies by means of their spectra, Prof. Stokes showed an exceedingly simple and practical mode of distinguishing between substances of similar appearance. The solution of the body to be examined is placed in a test-tube, behind a slit in a small opaque board; light is allowed to pass through the tube, which is looked at with a small prism, used with the naked eye, when the characteristic appearance of the substance 224 Proceedings of Learned Societies. is at once evident. In this manner solutions of blood and of port wine of equal intensity of colour are capable of being instantly dis- tinguished from each other. Prof. Stokes has applied this test to the green colouring matter of the bile, supposed by Berzelius to be identical with chlorophyll, and has discovered that it is perfectly distinct. Chlorophyll yields solutions in alcohol, ether, etc., which are characterized by very strongly marked bands of absorption, that are wholly absent in the solutions of the colouring matter of the bile, which has been named Biliverdin. There is no doubt but that the easy and practical mode of discrimination designed by Prof. Stokes will be of very great value to the working chemist and medical jurist in the distinction of organic substances of nearly similar appearance. ARCHAOLOGICAL INSTITUTEH.—WMarch 4. x | Anormnt Haprrations In ANGLESEA.—TheHonourableW. O. Stanley communicated a very interesting account of the remarkable circular habitations found in Anglesea, being particularly abundant in the neighbourhood of Holyhead. These habitations, which are usually from 15 to 20 feet in diameter, are designated as Cuttier Gwyddelod, or the Irishmen’s huts, in the maps of the Ordnance Survey; there appears, however, but little doubt that the title is an erroneous one. Each habitation is formed of turf, with two stones forming the sides of the entrance ; these are often found standing in the erect posi- tion. A detailed’ description was given of the opening by Mr. Stanley and Mr. Albert Way ofa village consisting of upwards of one hundred houses, standing on a terrace about six hundred yards in length from north-east to south-west. On this terrace the houses were placed close together, but without any regularity or plan, except that the openings were almost always turned towards the south-east. A very early age was assigned to these dwellings by the author of the paper, who regarded them as having being constructed before the use of iron or other metals was known in the locality. He thought therefore that they must have been erected by the abo- rigines long before the invasion of the Romans; and not, as their popular name implies, by immigrants from Ireland. Mr. Morgan. stated that dwellings of a precisely similar charac- ter existed in Monmouthshire, which certainly were not the work of Irish invaders. Notes and Memoranda. 925 NOTES AND MEMORANDA. ‘GERMS OF InFusoRi1a.—M. le Vicomte Gaston d’Auvray has addressed a let- ter to the French Academy, stating that by means of an apparatus,which he calls a dialyser, he filters water or other liquid so as to separate and collect the germs of Infusoria. He finds two sorts of germs, greenish grey and pearly white. He says they exist in all water, even when distilled, although most plentiful in that which isimpure. In air he also finds them, and they abounded in the thick fog of 2nd of December, 1863. All the grey germs are spherical, varying in diameter from 0™™.00024 and 0™",00034. The pearl white corpuscles are of three sorts: A and B spherical, their diameter being 0™",00040 and 0™",00065; C are ovoid, with lesser axis, 0™",00065, and major axis 0"",00080. The grey corpuscles he calls germs of protophytes ; the white, of animalcules, among which he includes vibrions. Ifthe corpuscles are all removed from water, but the debris of organic matter, such as bits of textile fabrics, vegetable epiderm, pollen grains, butterfly scales, smoke particles, allowed to remain in a flask which is sealed hermetically, no life is developed, and the result is negative if some white of the white corpus- cles are added. If however some of the greenish grey corpuscles are added, first protophytes, then amcebe, monads, and vibrions appear. If into these flasks con- taining the grey corpuscles, the white ones, A,B, and C are added, A yields amcebee, B monads, and C vibrions. M. d’Auvray states that he is preparing a work on this subject, and when the details are known his experiments can be ' checked by other observers. One of his most remarkable statements that demand verification, that some germs are able to withstand strong acids, prolonged boiling, or attempts at calcination, by passing the air containing them through red hot tubes. Corrins’ Brnocvnar Mrcroscorr.—This is a large, handsome instrument, presenting some novel and ingenious peculiarities. It carries two object-glasses ona dovetailed arm, sliding in a groove, so that a change of powers can be instantly made. We should think this mode of construction would require even greater attention to accuracy than the ordinary double nose-piece ; but, if accu- rately centered, it affords certain advantages. The next important speciality is the facility with which the polarizer (carried under the stage) can be brought into play, and the analyser made to replace the prism of the binocular arrange- ment, by drawing in or out the slide which carries both. In certain chemical and medical investigations, these arrangements are very convenient, and several emi- nent members of the medical profession have expressed great satisfaction with Mr. Collins’ labours. The stage is furnished with a magnetic bar, and if likewise supplied with the ordinary object-holder and clip, its range of utility would be jincreased, as the magnetic plan, though good for slides, is not well adapted for heavier articles like zoophyte troughs. We carefully examined the optical part of one of these instru- ments and found it fully equal to all ordinary requirements. Mr. Collins has taken an honourable place amongst those opticians who offer students a great deal of convenience for a small sum of money. In first-rate, costly instruments all kinds of wants are provided for; but where price is an object, the purchaser must consider what he stands most in need of, and what he can best dispense with. Under such circumstances tastes and necessities will lead to much difference of opinion, but it would be admitted on all sides, that Mr. Collins’ binocular is well entitled to consideration, and likely to meet the wishes of a large class. New Sovror or Porasu.—A coyral-red subtranslucent mineral, reported to have been obtained from Cheshire, has been submitted to analysis by Professor Church. He has identified it with the carnallite of M. H. Rose; it contained 25°7 per cent. of chloride of potassium. It is most probable that this rich source of potash overlies the rock-salt beds of this country as well as those of the foreign localities where carnallite has been found. It has been suggested that it was formed in the /asé stages of the drying up of ancient seas. 216 Notes and Memoranda. PERMEABILITY OF Merars at Hien Temprratures.—M. L. Cailletet has made the following communication to the French Academy. After remarking upon the facts mentioned by MM. H. St. Claire Deville and Troost, who found that iron at a high temperature was completely permeable for oxygen, and that a tube, heated in a furnace, and filled with hydrogen, allowed that gas to escape so that a vacuum was formed, M. Cailletet proceeds to detail his own experiments. He says—“TI passed portions of a gun-barrel through rollers till they were flattened. The ends were then welded (soudées). Thus rectangular pieces of iron were obtained, formed of two plates in contact, and sealed at their extremities. On strongly heating one of these pieces in a furnace, the non-welded portions separated, and resumed the cylindrical form and their original volume. It could not, therefore, be doubted that the gases of the furnace had penetrated the mass of iron and distended its walls.” ‘To a similar action Mr. Cailletet ascribes the cavities in large masses of forged iron; and he states that in the process of cemen- tation, acier poule, or steel with vesicles, is constantly produced ; but if soft, per- ferfectly homogeneous iron, such as can be obtained by keeping melted steel for several hours at a high temperature,_be employed, it is reconverted into steel without blisters. M.H. St. Claire Deville remarks upon this communication that — it is “very interesting and conclusive,” and he adverts to the discharge of gag’ from molten matter often observed in metallurgical operations. These gases, he considers, penetrate the walls of the crucibles by endosmose, and give rise to bubbles in the metals. Aotion or PorcenaIn anp Lavas ar Hiaa TrmMPrraTURES ON GasES— PossiBpLE AcTION oF THE Moon.—M. Ch. St. Claire Deville makes allusion to the preceding facts, and states that his brother and M. Troost have shown that if hydrogen traverses without difficulty the walls of a porcelain tube at a high temperature, it does not do so when the tube begins to soften or vitrify. The gas is then absorbed by the vitrified surface, from whence it escapes, leaving it porous. He connects these facts with the appearance of certain lavas. He says the lavas of Vesuvius, whatever the rate of their cooling, are always crystalline, and that they disengage aqueous vapour, chlorides, sulphides, etc., as the crystallizstion pro- ceeds, just as oxygen escapes from silver that takes the rocky form, or air escapes from freezing water. The crystallization of lavas he states to be accompanied by increase of density and evolution of heat. He traces a resemblance between the Campi Phlegrsei and the surface of the moon, and considers that the latter may have behaved like eruptive matter with excess of silica, which has a tendency to consolidate in a vitreous form, and imprisons gaseous matter in its solidification, M. Viau’s Process or EnGravine.—The lines are drawn on steel with a fatty ink, or transferred to the steel, which is then plunged in a bath, saturated with sulphate of copper, and accidulated with! nitric acid. In five minutes the plate is removed and washed; the copper is removed with ammonia, and the engraving is finished. The explanation is that the metallic solution deposits copper on those parts of the plate which are not covered with ink. This copper is removed by the final washing. The acid penetrates the ink slowly, and when this is accomplished a galvanic circuit is completed between the deposited copper and the steel, protected by the ink from the simple deposition. The steel becomes the positive pole, and is attacked by the sulphuric acid liberated from the copper by the free nitric acid. M. Vial states that this action is strongest where the ink is thickest, and that lines are thus etched of the proper depth and thickness. The copper that results from the electro-chemical decomposition is said to be thrown down on the borders of the lines, and to lift up the ink so as to form the pattern in raised copper, which is removed by the ammonia, ‘The process was favourably reported on by a Commission of the French Academy; and when recently exhibited at the Society of Arts, some practical engravers present thought it would be adapted to the cheap and conyenient reproduction of effects not requiring the aid of shading in cross lines. ; Cee PATRIA ys aay] 92 Ee wt tes bs : oe ain Sots wo 9% i a! “CASTLEMAINE Dies 7 \4 Cromane PS ROSBEG IH ISLAND } (Peninsula elery c=) LowerCoal == S F Gila ilurian =a! Series \ Seale in English mies 4 — Devonian ==> Limestone The figures in Castlemaine Harbour give the depth in fathoms at low water } of ordinary spring udes, and the shad- | j ing shows sund-banks which are left es te dry when the tide goes out, Map of a small portion of the County of Kerry, showing the district in which the Natterjack Toad is found indigenous. Natterjack ‘load uto Calamita) from Co. Kerry THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER. MAY, 1864. THE NATTERJACK TOAD IN IRELAND. BY THE HON. MRS. WARD. (With a Coloured Plate.) My object in the following remarks on the Natterjack Toad in Ireland is to present to the reader, in a tangible form, a little information which has apparently remained latent for a long time, not reaching the general public, so far as I am aware, and certainly not becoming known to myself till about a year ago, when I learned it in various accidental ways. A paragraph appeared in a Dublin daily newspaper, the Irish Times, on October 1st, 1862, headed “‘ Irish Toads and their use.” It stated that the rarer British toad (Bufo cala- mata) is an inhabitant of certain districts in the county of Kerry. “These Irish toads,” continued the writer, “are very pretty creatures, utterly devoid of that cold slime and general ugliness which render frogs an object of aversion. They are quiet little beings, and are readily tamed ;” and it was added that they would be found very useful in a greenhouse, being expert de- stroyers of aphides and other insects. I did not agree with the writer’s denunciation of the frogs; but I was greatly interested in the statement about the natterjack toad being found in Ireland, as it tended to confirm an anecdote which I had heard in England two months previously. I wrote to ask the editor on i authority the existence of Bufo calamita in Kerry was stated. In reply I was referred to the work of Dr. Charles A. Cameron, M.R.I.A., a Guide to the Royal Zoological Gardens, Phenix Park,* where, at p. 46, I read, “The common toad, (Bufo vulgaris) is a native of England, but is never met with in Ireland, its place being occupied by the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita), which, however, is exceedingly rare, and con- fined to the county of Kerry.” The proprietor of the Irish Times * M‘Glashan and Gill, Dublin, 1861. VOL. V.-—NO. IV. R 230 The Natterjack Toud m Ireland. stripe along the back appearing more strongly conspicuous. Flies, grasshoppers, beetles, and the larve of insects are their general food, which they take (only when the object is in motion) by darting their tongue with astonishing rapidity and precision. Their note is a pleasing chirp; but in the breeding season at night they keep a continued and confused noise, like to the action of a number of spinning-wheels. Strangers that visit Rosbegh during the bathing season do not like occupying the cottages near to the beach, being alarmed at the nightly pranks of these lively but harmless little creatures.* The peasantry have the greatest horror and even dread of them, and on my expressing my astonishment (at the Dingle side) at the number of those reptiles congregated about Rosbegh, was readily answered [in Irish]— “Wild Iveragh of the blue dragons, Glencar, in which no corn ever grew, And the high and horrid hills to the west of Desmond, All which Saint Patrick never thought worth blessing. ‘* It appears that Saint Patrick in all his visitations through Treland, never blessed Iveragh with his presence, his nearest approach being to a bridge east of that district, not far from Killorglin. The Iveragh people console themselves by saying that the Saint, standing on the bridge, stretched forth his arms to them exclaiming— ‘I bless ye to the west of me, and it is as well as if I travelled through.’ ” Iveragh, I should explain, is a barony in the county of Kerry, situate immediately to the west of Glanbehy and the mountain of Curragheen, and including the peninsula, or, as it is usually styled, the island of Rosbegh, which, as Mr. Andrews states, “‘ was formerly separated from the mainland ; but Lord Headley’s extensive improvements have converted marshes and sands, that the tide once widely covered, into rich pastures where hundreds of cattle now graze.” At the close of his lecture, Mr. Andrews said that he had received the utmost kindness and attention from the coastguard officers at Dingle and Ferriter’s Cove, as well as from the men of the coastguard generally in that district; and this remark leads me to the other pieces of information which I possess, and for which I am indebted to one of the last mentioned officers, Mr. Ross Townsend, now residing at Balbriggan. Soon after I had received the information conveyed in the old copy of Sawnders’s News-Letter, I happened (craftily) to ask a distinguished Irishman, “ Are there any toads in Ireland?” * Tam told by Mr. Andrews that the natterjacks astonished these strangers not only by their whirring noise, but also by actually entering the ground-floors of the cottages, and climbing over the furniture. The Natterjack Toad in Ireland. 231 “Oh! surely not,” he answered, but on reflection added, “ by the bye, there must be, for I have seen a whole boat’s crew of them.” He directed me to a place where I might hear of them, and after some inquiries I made them out in Dublin at No. 20, Molesworth Street. What a sight, to be sure, with the subject of the natterjack toad in my thoughts! There I saw no less than forty-five of these creatures, cleverly stuffed, mounted in a case containing a well modelled sea, with boats and background; the toads being employed as the dramatis persone in a species of marine entertainment or regatta. I confess to having felt a qualm of sorrow at first seeing them, similar to that with which the “Wurtemburg animals” inspired me in 1851, and especially the comic frogs, which seemed to me to quote Hsop, and say, ** Tt is sport to you, but it is death to us,”’ while I felt inclined to answer, “It is not sport to me; I like you better alive and well;” but this feeling got over, how interesting to observe the peculiar ‘ mesial stripe” of the natterjack, displayed on every: broad back; and how forcibly the abundance in which these creatures are found is set forth by the numbers here congregated, varying from about half-an-inch in breadth to dimensions sur- passing those of a full-grown frog. The group belongs to Sir James Dombrain, and the toads, as I afterwards ascertained, were prepared by Mr. Ross Townsend, who rightly judged that this mode of presenting them to view was likely to attract notice to the fact of their occurrence in Ireland. One of my friends kindly wrote to him, at my request, for some information ; this he gave fully in reply, and I shall pre- sently transcribe it from his letters. JI have prepared the little map (see coloured plate) especially to illustrate Mr. Townsend’s remarks. It is taken from the “General Map of Ireland [scale four miles to an inch] to accompany the report of the Railway Commissioners, showing the principal physical features and geological structure of the country.” These particulars, even to the depth of the water in and near Castlemaine harbour, I have copied with a view of presenting as much as possible to the eye. “You will perceive,” writes Mr. Townsend,” that the har- bour [of Castlemaine] is formed inside the bar by Rosbegh Point on the south side, and by Inch Point on the north. In the circle of this harbour, from Inch Point on the north, round to Rosbegh Point on the south, passing Lack, Castlemaine, Milltown, Killorglin and Cromane, in all these places toads are to be found in great abundance. The soil is generally of a light turf mould, or sand marsh ; in both of these they delight to keep, as the soil is easily penetrated, and they can get covering for themselves in the winter.” Mr. Townsend goes 232 The Natterjack Toad in Ireland, on to say, that Mr, Andrews in his ramble in Kerry had spent some time with him at Lack and Killorglin. “In one of our excursions,” he continues, “ on a salt marsh on Rosbegh Point, we found the first toad [the place marked by a red dot on my map ]|—at least the first which was known to be such in that. part of the country. Mr. Andrews told me that the late Mr. Thompson of Belfast, who was a naturalist of great research, had mentioned the existence of toads in Kerry as far back as 1805 ; but the best informed of the people of Kerry at the time I speak of—1841*—did not know of their existence, as the country people called them ‘ Black frogs.’ “The species I am now describing is the natterjack toad ; you will see its specific character, as: known in England, de. scribed fully in Bell’s History of British Reptiles, published in 1849; but Mr. Bell was not then aware of this species being found in Ireland. The natterjack toad is never found in those localities I have mentioned more than a quarter of a mile from the sea-shore; but all round the harbour of Castlemaine, which you may see is of considerable extent, they are exceed- ingly numerous, and from the month of April until September they could be gathered in dozens, as they go forth creeping, or rather running from one locality to another ; they make a whir- ring noise during the evening and night, when some thousands of throats are employed at once, and which I have heard on a calm night more than two miles at sea.’”’? Mr, Townsend adds, that on one occasion he removed a few dozens of them to a coastguard station, north-east of Dingle, that is to say, some miles west of Inch Point, and though he remained there twelve months, he never could trace one of them, although the soil he selected for them was exactly like that from which he took them. The simultaneous disappearance and power of conceal- ment exemplified by these toads, correspond closely with some anecdotes given by Mr. Couch in the INTELLECTUAL Osserver for September, 1863 ; and their aptitude for escaping, which Mr. Couch narrates, was proved, I much regret to say, by the little natterjack whose hkeness heads this article. It buried itself in November in a mixture of sand and peat (or as we say, turf-mould) which I had carefully prepared for it in a wooden box, over which the hand-frame was placed, the corners of the box being, as I thought, securely stuffed with moss, wedged down with pieces of slate. Nevertheless it escaped ; for when its non-appearance in spring caused me to make a regular search for it, first in the box, and then in the whole room, I had the vexation of finding it dead and dried to a mummy in a distant corner. * 1840 in Mr. Townsend's letter ; but the newspaper appears to fix the date im the following year. Photographic Processes. 233 The desire for escaping appears to be a constant habitude of the natterjack, and its powers both of burrowing and climbing cause it to rival Baron Trenck im the success of its endeavours. Mr. Andrews kept some specimens for years in his garden at Rathmines, near Dublin, and has observed that nothing but high walls, with deeply laid foundations, will avail to secure them. Three or four natterjacks will assist three or four more to climb by generously allowing their shoulders to be used as ladders: these creatures piling themselves one on another, like Chinese tumblers, and actively holding on to the smallest inequalities of the wall. Mr. Townsend concludes his letter by repeating the legen- dary story of St. Patrick, which he gives to nearly the same effect as Mr. Andrews did, adding, however, that the persons who told it to him had no idea that toads inhabited their neigh- bourhood. But, surely, we need not complain of the excep- tions which present themselves to the non-existence of reptiles in this Green Isle. If the word of promise in this matter be | broken to the ear, surely it is fulfilled to the hope ; we have no colony of snakes, no lurking adders, although we now and then meet with the sand lizard ; are plentifully supplied with the frog and smooth-newt, and possess in Kerry—and pos- sibly elsewhere in Ireland—an isolated party of the harmless Narrersack Toap. PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES.* BY J. W. M'GAULEY. Ir is not our purpose to enter into the minor details of photo- graphy ; we shall content ourselves with noticing the character- istic features of the various processes, remarking, once for all, that each of them may be modified in a great variety of ways. The Dagquerreotype Process. A silver plate of the required size, having been most carefully cleaned, is iodized, or bromo- iodized, by the exposure of its silvered surface to the vapour of iodine, or of iodine and bromine; it thus acquires a golden colour. Having been then placed in the camera and exposed to light for a length of time, varying with the state of the atmosphere, it is submitted to the action of the vapour of mercury, which brings out a picture that was before invisible. The silver salts which have not been decomposed by the action * This is the ‘second article of a series. The first, on The History of Photography, appeared in No. 27, April, 1864. The third and concluding paper will be given at an early date, 234 Photographic Processes. of light in the camera, are then removed by a strong solution of common salt, or a weak solution of hyposulphite of soda, which takes away the golden tint; and finally, the plate is washed with hot distilled water. If the exposure in the camera is allowed to exceed a certain limit, the mercurial vapour will bring out a negative, instead of a positive picture ; since a certain amount of actinic action gives to the iodide, etc., of silver a power of condensing the mercury, while a greater amount takes that power away. Process with Paper. A very simple process consists in soaking paper of a suitable texture in a solution of common salt, drying it in blotting-paper, and then brushing it with a solution of nitrate of silver. If the paper is required to be very sensitive, iodide of potassium is substituted for the coms — mon salt; and if extremely sensitive, bromide of potassium is used instead of either. The relative amounts of the salts employed is of great importance. After exposure in the camera, the picture is fixed with hyposulphite of soda. The Calotype. The paper is washed with nitrate of silver, and then dipped in a solution of iodide of potassium: in this state it is unaffected by light, but it is rendered highly sensi- tive by washing with a solution of nitrate of silver, to which acetic acid and gallic acid have been added. When removed from the camera, the picture will gradually develop itself in the dark ; but it is brought out at once, by gallo-nitrate of sil- ver and heating at the fire. It is fixed with hyposulphite. Pictures obtained by this and similar processes are negative ; positives are “ printed” from them, by placing them in contact with sensitized papers, in a glass frame, and transmitting light through them, for a sufficient time. Albumenized Paper. Paper which has been carefully coated with albumen on one side, and dried, is washed on the albu- menized surface with nitrate of silver. After exposure in the camera, it is fixed in the usual way. It has been found that the coating of albumen, containing the picture, may be removed from the paper, by steeping for a few moments in concentrated sulphuric acid, or in a concentrated solution of chloride of zinc, and washing carefully with water. The albumen then resembles an animal membrane, and may be placed on any other surface. ) The natural tone of a picture on paper is very disagreeable : this is corrected by the toning bath, which consists almost es- sentially of chloride of gold, mixed with one or more other salts. Chloride of gold and bicarbonate of soda constitute the mixture very commonly employed. The toning bath should deepen the tint to a blue, a violet, or even a black, and it may be used either before or after fixing. The dearness of gold Photographic Processes. 235 has caused many attempts to substitute other substances for it: of those which have been tried, chloride of platina with acetate of soda gives the best results—it is nearly as effective as chloride of gold. Albumenized Glass. A combination of several processes has been found most successful with aloumen on glass. The albu- menized plate is washed with a weak solution of nitrate of sil- ver to which alcohol has been added, then with a mixture of protoiodide of iron, and afterwards with a strong solution con- taining nitrate of silver and acetic acid. After exposure, it is developed with protosulphate of iron, and fixed in the ordinary way. Albumenized glass, usually very slow, is by this method rendered extremely sensitive. Waaed Paper. Suitable paper is carefully saturated with liquid wax, the excess of which is removed by blotting paper, and a moderately hot smoothing-iron. It is then immersed, for a considerable time, in a solution contaming iodide and bromide of potassium, after which it is dried. When required to be used, it is sensitized with nitrate of silver and acetic acid: it is developed with a mixture containing gallic acid and nitrate of silver, and fixed with hyposulphite. Moist Collodion Process. Common gun cotton is almost en- tirely dissolved by a mixture consisting of about nine parts ether and one alcohol: the solution is Collodion. Alcoléne is a collodion containing no ether. It is obtained by dissolving a gun cotton which has been prepared with 100 parts by weight of concentrated sulphuric acid and 90 parts nitric acid, density 1:4 in alcohol, spec. grav. 0°808, and diluting the result, a thick gummy mass, with absolute alcohol, having an iodide in solution. If weaker acids are employed ether will be required for solution of the gun cotton. The best iodide for preparing a quick and stable collodion is that of cadmium; almost all others colour the collodion, and therefore diminish its sensibility. A perfectly clean glass plate having been coated with the iodized collodion, which is allowed to solidify, but not to be- come dry, it is immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver, and then placed in the camera. The picture is developed with a mixture of pyrogallic and acetic acids, diluted with water, and is fixed in the usual way. Protosulphate of iron may be used in the developing mix- ture, or—which is very much better—double sulphate of iron and ammonia, instead of pyrogallic acid ; if formic acid is sub- ‘ stituted for the acetic, the rapidity is augmented, and the pic- ture is rendered more intense. Very good results are obtained if the picture is developed with protosulphate of iron, and in- tensified with pyrogallic acid and nitrate of silver, before the fixing or, if there is a tendency to fogging, after it, 236 Photographic Processes. Collodion negatives may be obtained with less than half the ordinary time of exposure by plunging the plate, after it has been sensitized with the nitrate of silver, into a concen- trated solution of acetate of silver, and developing with pyro-. gallic acid. | . If, after developing a collodion negative as much as possible by the ordinary method, a solution of sulphuret of potassium and a solution of protosulphate of iron are poured alternately upon it, water being used abundantly in washing it after each solution is employed, it will become so opaque as to be abso- lutely black and white. Collodion proofs may be developed positive, by means of an alcoholized solution of sulphate of iron containing acetic acid and nitrate of potash, which makes the lights of a dead’ white ; or with an alcoholized solution containing less iron and acetic acid, but nitrates both of silver and potash and nitric acid, which gives the lights a brilliant metallic appearance, The free acid in each mixture tends ina special manner to preserve the shadows. Without the alcohol the mixture would not run freely over the plate. Cyanide of potassium is used for fixing. The presence of a small quantity of copper in the sensitizing bath used with the paper for positives, causes it to afford vigorous and effective pictures from feeble negatives, but does not answer so well with good negatives. As, however, it renders the process tedious, it 1s objectionable to the profes- sional photographer. If, after developing, the plate is drained, and coated with glycerine, it may be left for some days without being finished. The glycerine prevents the oxidation of the iron, and increases the adhesion of the collodion to the glass ; it has the property of continuing moist, and is easily removed with water. Dry Collodion Process. The glass plate having been coated. with collodion, sensitized with nitrate of silver, and well washed, it is brushed over with a bromo-iodated solution of albumen, which preserves it from the decomposing action of light, so that it may be kept for two years or more. It must be sensitized anew at least one or two days before being used. Dry collodion requires four times as long an exposure in the camera as moist. A preparation of malt, of malt and tannin, or of tannin and glycerine, has been used with great success instead of the albumen. Also ammonia has been employed with excellent, effect in the development of dry collodion negatives; the time required, both for exposure and development, being greatly shortened. Ammonia, for some unknown reason, has no effect, occasionally : the development is effected in such cases with caustic potash, «© © °° pdntr 5 Photographic Processes. 237 _- Photography, with Textile, etc., Fabrics. Having been brushed over with a moderately thick mixture of Spanish white and alcohol, they are allowed to dry, after which they are care- fully polished with cotton. Thus prepared, they may be treated like positive paper, and will give as good pictures. Carbon Process. This has for its object a replacing of the salts of silver by carbon in an impalpable powder, which is Imprisoned in a sensitive coating. It is founded on the fact that the persalts of iron communicate to organic matter, such as albumen, gelatine, or gum, an insolubility which ceases, un- der the influence of light, in presence of tartaric acid. The latter, in reducing the ferric compound, restores the natural solubility of the organic substance, and allows both it and the impalpable powder with which it has been combined to be washed away, in proportion to the action of the light, so as to reproduce on paper which has been coated with the mixture, all the varieties of light and shade. Gelatine has been found to answer best for the process. If only the under surface of the coating is rendered soluble, the parts containing the middle shades will be carried off in the washing, as well as those cor- responding to the bright lights; this is prevented, either by causing the light to strike the outer surface first, or by modify- ing the details of the process. The means of attaining these objects have been well treated, in a paper read before the Pho- tographic Society of Scotland, in December last, by Mr. Blair, of Perth. The fixation of the’ picture is effected by removing the ferruginous compound with acidulated water; and it is rendered still more permanent by means of alum or corrosive sublimate. The process has not yet produced results at all comparable to those obtained with the salts of silver. The Chrysotype. Paper is washed with a solution of ammo- nia-citrate of iron, and dried. After exposure in the camera, the faint image then perceived is brought out strongly by wash- ing with a neutral solution of gold, andis fixed by means of water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and subsequent treatment with bromide, or, which is better, iodide of potassium. The Awrotype. Paper is washed with protocyanide of po- tassium and gold, then dried. It will now darken very rapidly when acted on by light, and the blackening continues in the dark. Several combinations of gold and cyanogen may be used. ‘The Platinotype. If a ferrocyanide of potassium and _pla- tina is formed, by mixing a boiling solution of chloride of platina, which is as neutral as possible, with a saturated solu- tion of cyanide of potassium, and paper is washed with it, long continued exposure in a camera, during sunshine, will cause a faint impression to be produced; and washing with a solution of proto-nitrate of mercury changes this into a‘ delicate 238 Photographic Processes. picture. But, whatever may be the details of the process em- ployed, a platinotype slowly vanishes, even in the dark— though, in some cases, it gradually reappears. The Catylissotype. Paper is brushed over with a mixture consisting of syrup of iodide of iron and tincture of iodine, - and, when dried with blotting paper, is washed with nitrate of silver. After exposure, nothing is perceptible; but a pic- ture gradually developes in the dark. The name of the process is due to the supposition that, when the silver salt has been slightly affected by the light, a catalytic action sets in, and ex- tends itself to the salts of iron. Finlarging of Images. The megascope, invented in 1780, is used to produce large from small proofs; thus, to obtain from a microscopic negative on glass, a portrait of the natural size. It never gives an agreeable picture, but skilful retouching may diminish its imperfections. The solar microscope answers well for the same purpose ; the negative being placed in the focus of the objective, and the sensitized paper on a screen in a darkened room. The electric light may be used, but solar is preferable. Heligraphy. This is understood to comprise the effects pro- duced by light on non-metallic substances; but is applied es- pecially to a development of the discoveries of Nicephorus Niepce, which has become very important, since it affords a means of obtaining impressions from metallic plates and litho- graphic stones. Niepce used asphaltum, but Daguerre re- marked that all bituminous resins and the residues of essential oils are decomposed by sunshine. Vegetable juices, also, are sensibly affected by it. In the process employed by M.M. Lemaitre and Niepce de Saint Victor, a carefully cleaned plate of polished steel is coated with a solution of bitumen of Judea in essence of lavender, and dried by heat. A transparent posi- tive is then placed over it, and after the bitumen, which has been rendered soluble by sufficient exposure to light, has been dissolved off by a mixture of rectified oil of naphtha and ben- zine, it is washed and dried. The plate is next acted on by nitric acid diluted with water and mixed with alcohol, and, having been again washed and dried, it is covered with finely powdered resin, and heated. This hardens the bitumen, and in the shadows forms granulations which give good impressions with ink. . If a picture is obtained with bitumen, by the method of Niepce, and the plate is then placed in an electrotype apparatus, copper will be deposited upon it, on connecting it with the negative pole; but it will be corroded in the lights, on con- necting it with the positive. A plate may, therefore, be obtained which will give impressions like an engraved copper-plate, or like an engraving on wood. . . Photographic Processes. 239 Photolithography. The stone is covered with a varnish consisting of bichromate of ammonia, water, and albumen, and when dry is exposed to light, under the engraving, etc., which is to be copied. Nothing is visible until the surface of the stone is washed with Marseilles soap, which removes the solu- ble portions—those where no insoluble oxide of chrome has been formed, and which, being allowed to act for a sufficient time, slightly hollows the stone wherever its surface has been laid bare. Ifit is then wetted and inked, as for lithography, the ink enters the hollows, but itis repelled from the parts in relief, which are to form the lights. The engraving, etc., is not reproduced im reverse, nor is it injured by the process of preparation. Barreswil’s method consists in covermg the stone with a solution of bitumen of Judea in ether, which forms, not a var- nish, but a granulation. A negative is laid on this; and the portions of the bitumen rendered soluble by exposure are washed off in the usual way. Impressions may then be taken from the stone; and, for some time, each is better than the preced- ing one. Zinco-photography. Paper is prepared with bichromate o potash and gelatine, and, after having been exposed under a negative, is covered uniformly all over with ordinary. litho- graphic ink; it is then washed with gum water, which removes the unaltered gelatine, and leaves a well-inked positive picture. This is transferred to a properly grained zinc plate, by pres- sure ; after which the process is that ordinarily used with zinc. Photographic Engraving. Dilute nitric acid dissolves the silver from a Daguerreotype, without acting on the portions covered with mercury. In this way may be obtained a plate which will afford a few tolerable impressions. A great im- provement is effected by rubbing grease into the cavities formed by the acid, gilding the prominent parts by the electrotype process, and then deepening the hollows with acid. The plate must then be finished with the burine, which of course injures its truth as a photographic product. Photography in Relief. A sheet of gutta-percha is coated with a mixture of gum arabic and bichromate of potash, and when dry is exposed in the camera. The parts of the gum which have thus been rendered soluble are then washed away with water; after which the sheet is dried. It is next held horizontally, the gummed side being under, and, the corners being pinched up so as to form a kind of rectangular trough, hot water is poured upon it. This causes the gutta-percha to become prominent wherever the gum has been removed; and thus the lights appear in a relief, which is unfortunately too great. General Coloration of Photographs. Besides the care usually 240 Photographic Processes. bestowed on toning, the uniform tintmg of photographs: has received considerable attention, as a means of improving their appearance. This is brought about in various ways. If, before exposure, a paper positive is placed for a short time in a solu- tion of uranium, then, on being taken out of the camera, is washed for afew seconds in water at atemperature of from 122° to 140° Fahr., and, immediately afterwards, is plunged into a solution of red prussiate of potash, it will soon acquire a fine red colour. Being now dipped in a solution of nitrate of cobalt, and dried at the fire, it will become green; and this colour is fixed by immersing in a solution contaiming sulphate of iron and sulphuric acid, washing with water, and drying at the fire. If a solution of prussiate of potash is used instead of that of uranium, and a solution of bichloride of mercury, saturated in the cold, after the paper has been taken from the camera, followed by a solution of oxalic acid heated to from about 122° to 140° Fahr., the colour will be a beautiful blue. Heliochromy. Among the various processes used by Niepce de Saint Victor for the reproduction of colours, the following were found to be the most effective :— A plate, like that used for the Daguerreotype, is immersed for ten minutes in a solu- tion of chloride of copper, or of iron, saturated to a degree suited to the reproduction of the mean colours of the spectrum, and then gently heated with a spirit-lamp ; if light which has passed through a transparent coloured picture is now thrown upon it, the various tints will be produced, but will vanish immediately. If, however, the bath employed consists of half proto dr sesqui- chloride of iron and half sulphate of copper, the colours of objects are reproduced with great vividness, with the excep- tion of yellow; and even this is obtained by using a bath of hypochlorite of soda, containing some alcohol and raised to a temperature between 158° and 176° Fahr., stirring the plate about in the mixture, until it is nearly black, then washing with water, and drying with the flame of a spirit-lamp. Before exposure, and while still lukewarm, the plate is coated with a varnish which consists of dextrine and chloride of lead, and dried by heat. This varnish causes the colours to appear with great brilliancy, and brightens the white ground, on account of the chloride of silver being bleached by the chloride of lead. When a bath consisting of dentochloride of iron and sulphate of copper has been used, fused chloride of lead prepared directly from the metal must be employed; but, when a bath consisting of hypochlorite of soda, wnfused chloride of lead, that it may neutralize the action of the alkaline solution, and tincture of benjamin of Siam is to be added to the varnish. After the picture has been obtained, the plate is to be heated, gradually, to the highest point short of carbonizing the organic A Cheap Observatory. 241 matter. This, if the whole thickness of the sensitive coating has been acted on by the light, intensifies the colours, other- wise it changes the blues to violet, and the black to red. It renders the tint so permanent that, when the iron and copper bath has been used, they are not destroyed by less than ten or twelve hours’ exposure to diffused light; and when the soda bath, not by less than three or four days’ exposure to the bright light of summer. The colours, in these processes, make their appearance one after another. Those of natural objects, on account of the white light always mixed with coloured rays, are more or less vitiated ; and when the hues of the spectrum are reproduced, a disagreeable violet shade is found to pervade them all. The binary colours, or those formed by a union of two, are decomposed by heliochromy ; hence the green of the emerald will be reproduced by it; but the green formed by a mixture of chrome yellow and Prussian blue, will afford only blue. It has been asserted that the colours may be completely fixed by alloxan; but this requires confirmation. . Encaustic Photography. A thin glass plate is coated, in the dark, with a mixture consisting of bichromate of potash, honey, white of egg, and water, and dried ina gas stove. It is next placed under a positive, in a copying frame, which produces upon it a weak negative. Pulverized enamel is then rubbed on with a soft brush, until a good positive is produced, which is fixed with alcohol, to which a little acetic or nitric acid has been added ; when the alcohol has evaporated from its surface, itis put horizontally into a dish containing water, and left there until the chromate is dissolved out. The picture in enamel remains, and, having been properly dried, is put into the furnace. A CHEAP OBSERVATORY. BY FREDERICK BIRD. Tur writer of this article was for several years of the number of those observers who ply their starry occupation for the most part in the open air, and can well sympathize with his brethren under the many difficulties with which their pursuit of knowledge has to be carried on. He commenced his career by casting a metallic speculum, and fabricating a telescope with his own hands. His out-door station was at a wooden turn-table, having around it a circular bricked pavement, and many were the delightful hours there spent in hunting up nebula and the double stars. 242 A Cheap Observatory. Out-door observation has, no doubt, its advantages. Telescopes are generally understood to work best when the object-glass or speculum has attained the temperature of the surrounding air. And certainly those who wish to familiarize themselves’ with the constellations, and the names and peculiarities of their leaders, as the more prominent stars are called, will get on much better in the open air, with the whole heavens before them, than when looking through the narrow opening of an observatory. But when the higher purpose of close telescopic scrutiny is the intention, then the shelter and many conveniencies of the observatory are indispensable. So immensely remote are even the nearest of the heavenly bodies that forthe most part weknowlittle ornothing of thenature of their surfaces. The pencillings on their discs of lines, streaks, ’ or spots, arising from clouds, oceans, mountain chains, or other unknown peculiarities of their structure, are by the mere effect of distance reduced to the utmost delicacy, and require not only the best optical means to reveal them, but also that the observer himself should be placed in an easy posture, and be perfectly free from bodily inconvenience. The most interesting part of an amateur astronomer’s work consists in observing such details, or in picking up minute objects amongst the fixed stars, measuring the interval separating double stars, determining as nearly as may be angles of position, and watching for variation—one of the most useful matters to which an amateur can devote his attention— occasional sketches of lunar craters under different degrees of illumination, solar spots, as the great orb rotates and brings them into view; noting the occultations of stars by the moon, with a view to decide the question, yet unsettled, of a lunar atmosphere ; and many other niceties of observation which not only invest his labours with interest, but impart to them a real value. ‘T'o do any of these things, however, effectively in the open air, with one’s telescope agitated by the passing wind, and a body shivering with the cold, is clearly next to impossible. This remark then leads to the main object of the present article, namely, to describe a ‘cheap observatory,” which the writer has recently erected for himself, and to show that at a very moderate outlay an amateur, who has the convenience on his premises for the erection of such a building, need not to remain destitute of it. He was led to the erection of an observatory chiefly to afford greater protection to a fine silvered glass speculum, of twelve inches aperture, some account of which appeared in a former number of the InrztLecruaL Ossmrvur. Since then he has com- pleted a much finer one, of a similar aperture, having a focal ee eS eee eee A Cheap Observatory. | 243 length of nine feet, fixed in an iron tube, and mounted on a fine mahogany stand by the late Charles Tulley. The observatory is erected on the summit of a sand rock, about sixty feet above the surrounding surface, and within eighty yards of the Great Western Railway. The weight of the rock is fortunately sufficient to absorb all tremors from the passing trains, from which when below there was a con- stant annoyance, tremors being often perceptible after the train had passed out of hearing. The aspect of the observatory is nearly all that could be desired, being completely open except in the extreme north, and even there a view of all objects 8 deg. below the pole can be obtained. The exterior of the building with the front shutter taken down is represented by the following sketch. Aull) al 7 ill It consists in the first place of a circular bricked building carried up exactly five feet high, with a low entrance door-way sufficiently wide to admit the telescope stand. And as economy in the materials and every part of the erection required to be strictly observed, the bricks of which the building is composed were old ones that had done duty for several years before, on the same spot, in the shape of a summer arbour. ‘They were pulled down, cleaned, and reset, and being for the most part VOL. V.—NO. IV. 8 244, A Cheap Observatory. broken and fragmentary, were all the more suitable for turning © the sharp curve. The walls are nine inches thick throughout, and the interior diameter of the enclosed space nine feet. Two courses from the top, and at equal intervals, are inserted six slabs of stone, to which are securely bolted the cast-iron chairs — carrying the flanged wheels, on which the roof was intended to revolve. The wheel and its axle, and the chair, were cast in separate pieces, and required, therefore, only two very simple patterns. The wheels required turning in a lathe to render them true, but the chairs were trimmed up and finished with a file, and the whole when completed cost exactly 22s. In setting the wheels great care was bestowed to range them accurately in a circle, and to ensure this each one as set was tested by a wooden radius working on a firm support at the centre. They were also accurately levelled, the one from the other, and when finished, the upper bearing edge stood half an inch above the level of the final ring of brickwork. The diameter of that part of the wheel which carries the weight is four inches. The flange extends beyond this three- quarters of an inch more, and the surface of the bearing part is one inch wide, which allows for slight irregularity in the iron circle. It might also be mentioned that in order to do away with friction, the flange is not perpendicular to the bearing surface, but reclines away from it, hence the edge of the iron ring comes in contact with the flange only at its base. The wheels may appear rather small, but they are found to answer most perfectly, and the roof moves with freedom. Out of the six wheels it rarely happens that more than three take a bearing at one time, but when one leaves off another begins. A sketch of their appearance when in situ before the roof was put on is here given. We next come to the wooden part of the building, namely the roof. Here again economy interposed and for- — bad all the woodwork being planed, so it was used up simply as it came from the saw. The framework of the roof is made up of two circles, four verti- cal standards, and two cross beams. ‘The circles are both of elm, and were cut in segments from boards one-and-a-half — inches ‘thick, they were placed end to end on a level floor and — united by other segments only an inch thick, these were laid across the joints, and all firmly united by screws. ” y =e \ [ A Cheap Observatory. 245 The larger circle is ten feet and the smaller eight feet in diameter. The latter was mounted over the former on the four uprights, and the cross beams laid in their places and well secured. The sides were then covered in with light deal boards, the edges of which being ploughed and tongued the joints were rendered quite close and perfect, at the same time they were securely nailed to the elm circles above and below. For the greater comfort of bemg well inside the building when observing, instead of the front shutter being formed on the sloping surface, it was thought better to carry the cross beams, on one side, some distance beyond the edge of the roof, to be met by uprights standing vertically on the lower elm circle, the intervening surface being boarded up and forming a kind of porch. A window also was inserted on the right- hand side of the porch, for the convenience of light in the day time. The top surface of the roof and sliding shutter were boarded over, and then covered with zinc, which was also carried a few inches down the sides, rendering all perfectly watertight. The slidmg shutter referred to moves on rollers between two strips of timber laid across the top of the build- ing under the zinc, and is opened or closed by means of a continuous cord, the ends of which are attached to the opposite ends of the shutter and pass over appropriate pulleys, so that it can be completely controlled without the necessity of going up to it. The upright shutter is removed entirely when a front view is required. It now merely remains to state that a facility for motion was given to the roof by attaching an iron ring to the lower elm circle. It was formed out of pieces of flat bar iron two inches wide and about four feet long each, holes were drilled through and counter sunk, and the bearing edge made straight, the bars were then heated and bent to the required curve, they were put on end to end, but not quite in contact, in order to leave room for expansion, and very firmly screwed to the circle. The roof was then lowered down, and when the iron edging rested on the wheels, the whole fabric was put in motion with a very slight effort. The movement was rendered still easier by several convenient pushing handles afterwards inserted, and a good supply of grease to ease the friction. A few minor details remained to complete the structure, such as painting inside and out, a bricked floor laid upon a thick bed of ashes, a convenient shelf a foot wide carried completely round the building above the large elm circle, from which depended a valance of oil baize intended to hide the wheels and also to check the draft. The building has now been in use for several months, and nobly stood the ordeal 246 Oycads. of the great wind storm which swept over the country not long since, the only mishap being a flight of the top shutter which was left unfastened. The comfort and convenience of the building has been found very great, and the performance of the specula immeasurably superior to what it ever was when they were used in the open air. They are left permanently in the tube shut up with tin covers, fitting closely to the cells in which they are mounted, and further protected from damp by a bag of sawdust which : has been steeped in a saturated solution of the chloride of cal- cium and afterwards baked thoroughly dry. Thus protected their surfaces retain all thei original splendour, and are reflective in the highest possible degree. On reckoning up the entire cost of materials and workmanship, it was found not to exceed the very moderate sum of £14. Should any observer of the heavens, reading this account of a cheap observatory, be resolved to get under the shelter of a revolving roof, it would afford the writer pleasure to aid him by any explanations and suggestions not already mentioned in the foregoing article. GENERAL CEMETERY, BirMIncHAM. CYCADS. BY JOHN R. JACKSON, Curator of the Kew Museum. (With a Tinted Plate.) THERE is something strange and peculiar about the cycads— something wierd and pre-Adamitish about their very appearance —which fixes our attention, even at the first glance, and the more closely we examine into the history of these plants the more weep on does it become. In the whole range of the vege- table productions of our globe it would be difficult to select a group of plants to which more of interest is attached. There are not very many of them, perhaps not more than 70 or 80 species, at present existing. Their geographical range is some- what extended, for we find them in Africa, in America, the West Indian Islands, and in Australia ; they are the scattered remnants, the living representatives of a bygone flora, ‘They form a little family circle, completely isolated from the remainder of the vegetable world. ‘They have no close ties of relationship connecting them with any other group of plants, although pos- sessing external resemblances to several, So peculiar and — Ts. |S OO eS — a ZZ —> is fr S ER eststetete eee Rosey PERS KSB ee aes EO" een \\(\\\ "II Kl : Ee CYCADS. Fig. A. Encephalartus Caffer, Lehm. Fig. B. Male cone of Stangeria paradoxa, Moore. With seed and leaflet natural size, showing venation. Fig. C. Memale cone of Macrozamia spiralis, Fig. D. Bowenia spectabilis. look. 1. General appearance of plant. 2, Form of leaves. 3, Male cone half natural size. quarter 2 wt Kahl ip he “ ery ate oe otro wae . ’ bee", fae AES in ele, Ph Mee; ~ +e YA +2 ak + < Ra “y ke + F SEITE - re vig ate { seb oA ve ee hw U ‘> § 7 J hi ha us ; “ir ot i ‘ LS arte , ; 7 ‘ x =~ oom ny ( ees . 4 ey A i" i jew fs * . th 4 . q irs | as 7 2 ay one eee: ens ra wlynun if yi ial | x 8 setae worn Cycads. 247 well marked are the characters by which they are known, that having once become acquainted with them, the family likeness is at once recognized. Ii is very strange that so remarkable a family, and one whose history is fraught with so much of interest, we might ‘almost say of romance, has never yet found a biographer; no one has taken the subject in hand, and any one wishing for information concerning the cycads must seek for it in brief notes and passing allusions in a hundred different works. No man has undertaken the duty of introducing this family to the British public. That pleasant task has fallen into our hands, and we believe that the readers of the InrerzectuaL OBSERVER will find something to interest them in the subject of our paper, if not in the manner in which it is treated. In their cylindrical, undivided stems, surmounted by a crown of foliage, the cycads resemble palms. A good idea of the general habit of the family is shown in Fig. 1, which is a sketch of Encephalartos Caffer, Lehm., from a fine specimen growing in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. It will be seen that the stem is undivided, growing only at the apex, and that the lower parts are marked with the scars of the old leaves. In exceptional cases the stems are divided dichotomously. In this again cycads resemble palms, for there are one or two examples of forking stems even among the palms, as Hyphcene for example. In the germination of their seeds, too, there is a similarity between them; but then, again, if we look at the venation of the leaflets of their pinnate fronds we should be inclined to think there must be some relationship with ferns. The arrangement of the veins is precisely that found in the free-veined ferns, as shown in Fig. 2 ; indeed, when the fronds of this plant were first sent to this country, without either stem or fruit, they were believed to belong to that family, and the plant was, by Kunzé, a first-rate authority upon ferns, pub- lished as a species of Lomaria. The most characteristic feature of the ferns, and one which most persons would look upon as being a distinctive mark of the family, is the gyrate vernation of their fronds; that is, their being coiled up, like the head of a crozier, in their young state. But this we find is also a character observed in the majority of cycads. While their habit of growth resembles the alm, their venation and vernation is, to all appearance, fern- like ; but their floral organs and their fruits, which are, of course, the most important parts, give us the resemblance of a third great natural order—Oonifere, the fir-tree tribe. The flowers are unisexual and without floral envelopes (achlamydeous). In the male cones the one-celled anthers are scattered in sessile clusters over the lower surface of the scales, The anthers split 248 Oycads. up longitudinally. The fruit is produced in cones, closely resembling in many cases those of various kinds of coni- fers (see Figs. 2 and 3). ‘The size of their cones varies much with the different species, in some, as those of Hncephalartos, they are of immense size, frequently measuring two to three feet in length. The hard-cased nut-like seeds are either arranged along the sides of altered leaves or scales as in Cycas, or at the base of the peltate scales, as in Hncephalartos. The seeds of Oyeas are as large as a walnut, while those of Stangeria paradowa much resemble hazel-nuts. With such peculiar features as those above described, it is not to be wondered at that the early botanists were much puzzled as to the affinities of cycads. -Thus we find that Linnzus him- self was at first inclined to class them with palms; but he sub-.: sequently changed his opinion, and, with Adanson and some other authorities, gave them a place among ferns. After con- siderable discussion upon this difficult subject, M. Richard came to the conclusion that they should constitute an order by them- selves, under the title of Cycadec ; but he still retained them as near allies of the two former orders, giving them, in fact, a place intermediate between palms and ferns. Sub- sequent researches have proved that though they resemble these natural orders, yet they have no true affinity with them. The cycads are now placed in what is no doubt their true position, that is among Gymnogens, a class intermediate between Hn- dogens and Hxogens, and associated with conifers, taxads, (yews), and joint firs, from each of which orders, however, they are totally distinct. The cycads may claim a high antiquity, for they certainly existed in considerable numbers in this country during the Oolitic period, as their remains well preserved in the strata at Portland abundantly testify, and they may have existed even earlier. It is not at all improbable that some of the fronds found in the Carboniferous strata, and usually looked upon as ferns, are in fact cyeads. ‘The texture of the fronds was evidently thick and leathery ; a characteristic of the family we are speaking of, but much more rare among ferns. The essential character of the flora of the Lias period is the predominance of Cycadew, says Dr. Balfour ; we find in strata of that age many species of Cycadites, Otozamites, Zamites, Ctenis, Pterophyllum, Nelsonia, and other allied genera, There are few flowering plants which can be traced further back. Cycads formed, doubt- less, part of the food of that mighty reptile, the bar, which trod this earth when the Wealden beds were deposited. The family must have made an important part of the flora of this country at that remote period; bat with the changes of climate and circumstances, brought about during the great . Cycads. 249 length of time which has since elapsed, the cycads have been driven southward, until not a single species is now found in Hurope. They are not alone in this respect, for palms and gigantic tree ferns flourished here too. Only one or two species of palm now exist north of the Mediterranean, and no example of a tree fern. The genus Banksia, which we now look upon as being more characteristic than perhaps any other of the Australian flora, was, there is reason to think, at one - time, a native of this country. We cannot be surprised there- fore to find that the cycads have all emigrated: let us see where we find their descendants settled in our own day. The geographical distribution of this family is not confined within such narrow bounds as was supposed a few years ago, many new species, and new localities for old ones, have been recently discovered. They are perhaps more plentiful in South Africa than in any other part of the world. Mr. Bunbury, writing in the London Journal of Botany, says that Zamias are among the forms of vegetation that characterize the eastern — parts of the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, especially the great tract of thicket extending along the Caffir frontier. It was formerly supposed that they were not to be found in the regions of tropical Africa, but the researches of Barter upon the Niger, and Gustay Mann upon the west coast, prove this to have been a fallacy; some fine cones collected by these two botanists now enrich our national collection at Kew, as well as some specimens sent by Dr. Kirk of the Livingstone Expedition. Among the species most plentiful in South Africa are Encephalartos Oaffer, H. horridus, and EH. pungens. Cycads are also found in Mexico, the Hast and West Indies, in Madagascar, the warmer parts of Asia, and some of the South Sea Islands. The recent researches of Dr. F. Mueller of Melbourne, and Mr. W. Hill of Brisbane, have added much to our knowledge of the Australian forms of this family. One most interesting species, for the knowledge of which we are indebted to the latter botanist, we must mention. It is Bowenia spectabilis (Fig. 4), of which an admirable figure by Mr. W. Fitch was published in the Botanical Magazine (‘T. 5398). We borrow the following remarks from Sir William J. Hooker’s description of the plant, published in that valuable work :— The discoverer of this singular plant was the late Allan Cunningham, from whom we received, upwards of forty years ago, a portion of a frond, collected at the Endeavour River (lat. 15 deg. S.) in 1819, and referred by him provisionally to Aroidece (Dracontium polyphyllum M.S.) Nothing, however, was known further of it till Mr. Walter Hill, the zealous and able head of the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, re-discovered it in Rockingham Bay, and sent a young living plant, with full- 250. Oycads. . grown dried leaves, and a male cone, to the Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1863. From these materials the plate and description have been made, and, in accordance with Mr. Hill’s desire, as well as our own, we have attached the name of the present enlightened Governor of Queensland (Sir George F. Bowen, G.C.M.G., Captain and Governor-in-Chief) to the genus, in recognition no less of that officer’s position as Governor of the district of Australia in which the plant was found, than of his liberal encouragement to botany, and of Mr. Hill’s exertions in particular. As a genus, the most prominent character of Bowenia is the compound. leaf, its general characters (all but shape), texture, and venation ; the leaflets do not differ from those of Macrozamia, and are so very similar to those of some West Indian Zamias that it is difficult to distinguish them, generically, except that in Bowenia the leaflet is decurrent by the petiole, and not articulate with the rachis. The habits of growth, caudex, etc., entirely accord with that of the South American Zamias, as does the male amentum ; the female amen- tum and fruit are both at present unknown, but we trust ere long they will be detected and published.” 3 Bowenia is a unique example of acycad, possessed of leaves which are more than once divided—the normal character is the pinnately divided frond, as shown in Fig 2. The plant whose leaf we have selected as an example is one possessed of peculiar interest, as we have before mentioned, on account of its great resemblance to the fern family inits venation. Its stem is short and globular, and, unlike most of the family, it is not marked with the scars of fallen leaves. When first introduced into this country, now about twelve or fourteen years ago, the plants from their novelty realized large sums of money—several stems selling for £5 or more a-piece. One of the finest collections of living ‘specimens of this family in Hurope, if not, indeed, the richest, is that at our National Botanic Garden at Kew. A very large number of species may there be seen growing in all their native luxuriance in the magnificent Palm House. Fig. 1 will give an idea of one of these, which must be of enormous age ; it is probably one of the oldest plants in the garden, and must have passed through many vicissitudes in its native land ere it was trans- ported to our country. ‘The lower parts of the stem are partially charred upon the outside, which looks as though it had suffered in one or more of the bush fires so common in that country. But it has survived all its trials, and is now in robust health, and will probably be so, we might almost say, for cen- turies to come. The garden of James Yates, Hsq., of Lauder- dale House, Highgate, also contains a magnificent collection of cycads, including many rare species. In the Botanic Garden Oycads. 201 of Hamburgh, and one or two other continental gardens, there are likewise good collections. There is a great and general partiality on the Continent for the commoner kinds of cycads which are grown for decorative purposes. In many of the small nursery gardens round Dresden, Cycas revoluta was, a few years ago, extensively cultivated ; whole hothouses were devoted to numerous specimens of this one plant, and it would appear to be a profitable business the growing of these plants, for it is a very general practice for the mourners at a funeral to carry fronds of this plant in their hands when following a departed friend to the grave. The custom originated, it 1s said, among the Jews, but is not now confined to them. They are well adapted to the purpose, being somewhat rigid and yet gracefully curved, and as the pinne are numerous, narrow, and thickly crowded together, they have somewhat the appearance of green feathers on a large scale. The resemblance of the fronds of cycads to those of palms has led to their being substituted for them in many Roman Catholic countries where palm branches cannot be obtained, and they. are often carried in processions on Palm Sunday. In New South Wales the fronds of Macrozamia are generally used for this purpose. Cycads have their economic uses, too, and are therefore looked upon as valuable plants in some, of their native countries. Thus we find that from the nuts of Cycas circinalis, L., which is very abundant in many of the Hast Indian forests, especially in Malabar and Cochin, a kind of sago is prepared. For this purpose the nuts or seeds are exposed to the heat of the sun for a few weeks to dry, the kernels are then taken out and pounded ina mortar. This flour is extensively used by the forest tribes and poorer classes of the natives in various parts of India and Ceylon. This plant grows also in the Fiji Islands, but not very plentifully ; a kind of sago is there prepared from the pith of the stem, but on account of the comparative scarceness of the plant it is not an article of general use, and is used only by the chiefs and their guests. From this species a clear transparent gum-resin exudes, which hardens by exposure to the sun and. much resembles gum tragacanth in appearance. This gum in India has the repute of being a good antidote for snake bites, and is also used for ulcers of all descriptions. The genus Macrozamia has a wide distribution in Australia, The nuts of Macrozanua spiralis form an article of food in times of scarcity ; they have, however, little to recommend them, and unless properly prepared are apt to produce unpleasant effects upon the system. ‘This can be obviated by first steeping the nuts in water and then roasting them. A quantity of gum, resembling tragacanth both in substance and appearance, is 252 Oycads. exuded by the cylindrical half-buried stem of this plant. Gum is also exuded by the fruit, but it is darker and more trans- parent than that obtained from the stem. In the Bahamas, the natives prepare a kind of starch from the trunk of Zamia tenwis, Willd., which they use as arrowroot, and for which, being very pure, it is a good substitute. In many of the West Indian Islands another species of the same genus, Z. furfuracea, Ait., furnishes a similar article of food. Dion edule, L., is a native of Mexico, and an abundant supply of starch is there obtained from its seeds, and forms by no means an unimportant article of food. The nuts of this plant are much larger than those either of Cycas or Zamia, and approach nearer to those of the Australian genus, Macrozamia, the ordinary size of them being about that of a common chesnut, — though occasionally seen much larger. It will be seen that starch, or sago, is produced by most of the plants belonging to this order, and may be prepared either from the trunk or the seeds. This, naturally enough, led to the belief, some years ago, when the true source whence our com- mercial sago was obtained was yet unknown, that it was furnished by these plants. They were then looked upon as palms, and the East Indian species acknowledged without doubt as furnishing the source whence our supplies. were obtained ; more recent researches, however, prove that the sago so largely imported into this country is obtained from a true alm. We havo thus attempted to describe the peculiarities, value, and uses of one of the most singular natural orders in the whole ‘vegetable kingdom. Their interest is not confined to one point, but is manifold, whether as to their singular habits, their geological history, or their present economic uses. ‘The cycads therefore deserve a greater claim upon our attention than has been hitherto given to them. oo Discovery of Poison Organs in Fishes. 25 DISCOVERY OF POISON ORGANS IN FISHES. COMMUNICATED BY HENRY WOODWARD, F.zZ.8. AL comparative anatomists, from Cuvier down to the present day, have decided to treat the accounts given by Pliny, Atlian, and Oppian, and other old writers, of the poisonous nature of wounds inflicted by fish-spines as incredible, and only deserving a place among “‘ Old wives’ fables.”? Cuvier observes, “ having no canal, nor communicating with any gland, they are unable to shed any venom, properly so called, into the wound.” Notwithstanding the verdict of science against the common belief of fishermen, not only on our own coasts, but on the shores of France and Spain, and among the natives of India also, the conviction has always prevailed, that certain fishes (belonging to the family of Acanthopterygii or perches), armed with strong spines upon the gill covers and the dorsal fin, inflicted poisonous wounds with these defences. That this is really so would seem to have been proved by numerous cases recorded upon good medical authority, of severe inflammation and permanently stiffened joints, resulting from punctures inflicted by the spines of the “common weever,” or “ sting-fish” (Trachinus vipera), of our shores. _ The virulence of such injuries, has, however, always been referred, in books upon natural history, to the rugged and lacerated condition of the wound, or to the serrated form of the spine which caused it. This may be true in the case of wounds caused by the cat-fish and other Siluroid fishes armed with serrated spines; but certainly does not account for the viru- lence of wounds produced by smooth-spined fishes like the perch family. Professor Allman made a most. interesting communication upon this very subject, so long ago as November, 1840, to the Annals and Magazine of Natural History (vol. vi., p. 161). _ He there says, ‘‘ On the 9th August, 1839, I was wounded near the top of the thumb by a Trachinus vipera, which had just been taken in aseine with herrings, sand-eels, etc. The wound was inflicted by the spine attached to the gill-cover, during my attempt to seize the fish. A peculiar stinging pain occurred a few seconds after the wound, and this gradually increased during a period of fifteen minutes. The pain had now become most intolerable, extending along the back of the thumb towards the wrist; it was of a burning character, resembling the pain produced by the sting of a wasp, but much more intense. 254 Discovery of Poison Organs in Fishes. The thumb now began to swell, and exhibited an inflamma- tory blush, extending upwards to the wrist. The pain was now distinctly throbbing and very excrucia- ting. In this state it continued for about an hour, when the pain began somewhat to subside, the swelling and redness still continuing. In about an hour anda half the pain was nearly gone. Next morning the swelling of the thumb had but slightly diminished, and was in some degree diffused over the back of the hand, the thumb continued red and hot, and pain- ful on pressure over the metacarpal bone. In a few days the swelling had completely subsided ; but the pain on pressure continued for more than a week.”’ The spines of the opercula in this fish, of which we have two species (the Zrachinus vipera and the Trachinus draco), ° are deeply grooved along their edges, each groove terminating at the base of the spine in a conical cavity. The integument is continued over the spine to within a very short distance of the point, forming a complete sheath for nearly its entire length, and converting the grooves at each side into perfect tubes, extending from the base to the point of the spine. The result of this arrangement is a structure beautifully adapted for the conveyance of a fluid from the base to the apex of the spine. : The spines of the dorsal fin in the Weevers are also grooved, but the grooves become superficial, and disappear towards the base, and do not terminate in cavities similar to those at the bases of the spines of the opercula. Professer Allman did not succeed in detecting any specific gland connected with this apparatus, but at the bottom of each of the conical cavities of the opercula he noticed a small pulpy mass, which he considered. might possibly be a glandular structure; but he adds, “In ascribing to it the property of secreting the virus, I do nothing more than hazard a conjecture.” ‘The next recorded observations upon this subject are by Isaac Byerley, Hsq., in the Proceedings of the Liverpool — Literary and Philosophical Society, vol. 1. p. 156, May, 1849. _ Mr. Byerley records carefully the effects produced by wounds from these fishes, and gives also sections of the spines, to show the side grooves which Dr. Allman had already described. He says it has been suggested that the fish is capable, of secreting mucus from its skin of great acridity, which, follow- ing the spine into the wound, might produce the effects men- tioned, A. large quantity of mucus is secreted by means of glands under the skin in all fishes, but it would, Mr. Byerley considers, be very remarkable that the Trachinus alone should secrete it of so irritating a quality. The upper part of the membrane covering the spines, especially the opercular ones, Discovery of Poison Organs in Fishes. 255 forms such loose envelopes to them, that it is quite possible a portion of such secretion might intervene between the spine and its sheath, and, in that case, the spine would always have a charge of virus ready for use. I always (he adds) favoured the idea that acrid mucus, either normally so formed, or the result of excitement, was the cause of the phenomena we have been considering until recently, but having observed a new structure occupying the grooves in the spines, which appears to be an organ destined to secrete a specific poison, I have willingly given up the doubtful for what appears to be a certain cause. And it was just this one mistake which prevented Mr. Byerley and his friend Dr. Inman from arriving at probably the true solution of this interesting anatomical point. Dr. Inman (Mr. Byerly tells us) was fortunate enough, not haying an immediate opportunity of examining the fishes in their fresh state, to immerse them in spirit and water, in con- sequence of which the gland became more opaque and denser. — J (he adds) always had fresh fishes at hand, and in preparing the parts for examination without having used spirit, must have torn the gland from its usual resting-place. In fact what Mr. Byerley saw only in spirit-specimens, was, in reality, no organ at all, but the coagulated mucus fluid occupying the oper- cular grooves and the space within the integument of the spine, which only became visible from the effect of the spirit upon the secretion. ‘The structure which he figures and describes as glandular, is merely the thickened appearance of this fluid under the microscope. It remained for my distinguished friend and colleague Dr. Albert Gunther, to give a complete demonstration of this most interesting poimt of Ichthyological anatomy. He did so in describing a new species of Batrachoid fish, from Panama, before the Zoological Society, on 22nd March last. Dr. Giinther remarked that many fishes were dreaded on _ account of their spine defences, such as the Sting-rays and Siluroid fishes, and some scaly fishes, as the Weevers. Exag- gerated accounts, no doubt, were often circulated of the venom- ous nature of these fishes; still, in some cases, it seems certain the wounds must have been poisoned. No trace, however, of an organ secreting a poisonous substance could be found, and all handbooks of comparative anatomy denied the presence of such a gland in any fish. The axil of the pectoral fin of many Siluroid fishes, Dr. Gimther observed, contained a cavity with a mucous fluid, which might be imtroduced into a wound by means of the pectoral spine like the poisoned arrow of the Bushman. He had no doubt of the poisonous nature of the contents of 256 Discovery of Poison Organs in Fishes. this axillary sac after discovering in another genus of fishes a poison-organ which structurally is identical with and as complete as that of the venomous snakes. This fish belongs to the family Batrachide, and a single species of the genus has already been described in the Museum catalogue of fishes, part ui. page 174, under the name Thalassophryne maculata. Beimg a very small species, Dr. Gunther did not discover the apertures in the spines, although really exist- ing. A second species having been recently brought over with a collection of fishes from Guatemala by Messrs. Salvin and Godman, which has been named Thalassophryne reticulata, being ten and a-half inches long, the structure of these spines was more easily discovered. ~ This fish is armed with a single sharp spine upon each’ opercular bone, and two upon the dorsal fin eight lines in length. Each spine has an aperture on its anterior surface just below the apex, and upon pressing back the integu- ment in which it is enveloped nearly to its summit, a thick creamy fluid flowed or spirted from the aperture. Upon removing the integument with a dissecting knife a small sac or reservoir was exposed, attached to the opercular THALASSOPHRYNE RETICULATA, a a, The opercular spines. % 6, The dorsal spines, B d, Opening in poison sac. ec, The mucous canals. bone near its base, which contained the same creamy fluid which had previously been seen to exude from the aper- ture near its apex. On inserting a bristle into this aperture it reappeared at another opening near the base of the spine, and within the sac or reservoir already described. A tube leading from this reservoir was also detected, having a free end lying within the sac, and evidently being the canal by which the fluid was conveyed to this receptacle. ‘There seems no doubt that this canal goes directly into a branch of the mucous system of Discovery of Poison Organs in Fishes. 257 * the fish, and that it is by the mucous glands that the fluid is secreted.* The dorsal spines were found to be furnished with precisely similar contrivances. Nobody, says Dr. Giinther, will imagine for a moment that this complicated apparatus can be intended for a harmless purpose, or to emit an innocuous fluid into a wound. This example of a special poison-organ in fishes, although an isolated one, is, nevertheless, of the highest importance, as the muciferous system supplying these glands is common to the whole class of fishes, and though not quite clearly demonstrated by a good anatomical examination, yet there are doubtless many others which will have to be added to the number; and just as in the class of Ophidia, we have some snakes with poisonous saliva and some quite innocuous, so we shall also find it to be with the mucous secretion of fishes. It must also be borne in mind that these fish-spines are merely weapons of defence; all the Batrachoids with obtuse teeth upon the palate and lower jaw, feeding upon mollusca and crustacea. EXPLANATION OF Figure or T'HALASSOPHRYNE RETICULATA FROM THE Pacific Coast or Panama, 1-47tH NaruraL S1zE.— aa, The opercular spines seen projecting from the sides of the fish, just above the gill openings. 06, The dorsal spines. e c, The mucous canals, which traverse the entire length of the fish on each side. A. The opercular spine seen separately (natural size). The openings to and from the canal by which the poison is introduced into wounds are indicated by arrows. B. The same spine with the poison-sac or reservoir attached, showing (d) the small orifice by which the poison is conveyed to the sac from the muciferous system, with its free end lying within the sac. __ * The two specimens of Thalassophryne, being distinct species, and at present the only existing types, have not been injected or dissected further to de- monstrate this point, but more specimens from Panama are shortly expected, and when these arrive, injections of the glands will be properly made, 258 Mosses to be Found in May. MOSSES TO BE FOUND IN MAY.—CORD-MOSSES AND APPLE-MOSSES. — BY M. G@. CAMPBELL. THE common cord-moss (Funaria hygrometrica), which crowns our walls and banks almost everywhere, feels the genial power of May, and hastens to ripen and pour out the little seeds that have been hitherto so snugly encased in its pear-shaped capsule, and whose mouth, obliquely placed, and turning towards the earth, seems conveniently ready for their exit as soon as the little trencher-like lid has fallen off, and the large dehiscing annulus has unrolled, which latter act takes place immediately. on the fall of the lid. It is true that every month in the year weaves its own moss-, wreath, brings its own favourites to perfection, and that, there- fore, many a change, many an operation of marvel and of beauty, is continually going on around us, and as continually lost to the casual observer. But we invite our readers to amicroscopic examination of the genus /wnaria, and especially Funaria hygro- metrica, which is so easily procurable, as excellent examples of the structure and arrangement of the inflorescence and fructifica- tian of mossesin general. The Funarie are named from fwnis, a rope, cable, or cord, in allusion to the twisting of the seta in this genus, giving the appearance of a twisted cord. | They are acrocarpous, sub-biennial and loosely caspitose mosses, with a stem at first simple, and crowned by a barren discoid flower; subsequently they become branched, and ter- minate in fertile flowers, each producing a solitary capsule, obliquely pyriform, sub-ventricose, and of thick texture, with a mouth always more or less oblique, and often small, surrounded by a double peristome of sixteen divisions each ; the outer con- sisting of sixteen oblique, lanceolate-tapering teeth, having numerous prominent trabeculae on the inner side, and all con- nected at their apices by a small, reticulated, and circular disc. These teeth are also longitudinally marked with fine striae, and have the property of being remarkably hygrometric, spreading outwards in drying after the rupture of the connecting mem- brane. . The inner peristome is, at its base, somewhat coherent to the outer. It is also divided into sixteen processes, placed opposite to the outer teeth, of a lanceolate form, and each marked with a medial or vertical line. The lid is conical or obtusely convex; the annulus, when present, large, and un- rolling spirally, but in some species it is entirely absent. The leaves are of thin texture, consisting of large succulent, oblong- Mosses to be Found in May. 209 hexagonal cells, or cellules, and even the nerve itself is loosely cellular, and it ceases at or near the apex. In Funaria hygrometrica, or the common cord-moss, the peri- cheetial leaves are connivent, ovate-lanceolate in form, concave, entire, nerved to the apex, and clustered together so as to form a sort of bud; the lower leaves are smaller, scattered, and more or less spreading, while those of the perigonium, or barren- flower, are denticulated both at the apex and at the base ; they are of a sub-spathulate form, and have the basal margin re- curved. The capsule is pyriform-incurved, strongly furrowed ° when dry, and having a very oblique mouth, which is surrounded by a beautifully corrugated border, not observable in any other species, and varying from deep yellow to orange or reddish as it ripens. The lid is plano-convex, with a red tumid or slightly frilled border, distinctly grooved for the lodgment of the large dehiscent annulus which unrolls spirally immediately after the lid falls away; thus, almost simultaneously, are removed two barriers to the exit of the spores, which are small, and of a. reddish-brown colour. The seta, or fruit-stalk, is arcuate and flexuose, the upper part twistmg to the right when dry, the lower in an opposite direction. In length it varies very con- siderably, from half an inch on the tops of exposed walls, to two and even three inches in more warm and sheltered situations. We have grown it under a glass, and found the seta attain to rather more than three inches in length. The outer peristome is reddish, the inner yellow. There are three varieties of this moss. The variety patula has a more slender stem, branched, with spreading and some- what undulated terminal leaves, which become twisted when dry. Variety calvescens, with the same kind of stem and leaves, but with a straight elongated fruit-stalk, and a more slender sub-erect capsule. We have seen some specimens brought from Switzerland which had grown to avery large size. If, as we have already said, Funaria hygrometrica, so easily procurable, and so easily recognizable, be carefully examined for some months prior to the ripening of its capsules, it will give no very imperfect idea of the economy of this department of the vegetable world. Previous to the appearance of the young seta at the tops of the mfant shoots or stems will be seen small stellate flowers of a reddish hue. These are the barren flowers, answering to the stamens of what are called phenogamous, or flowering plants, and. on dissection in water they will be seen to consist of a little cluster of vesicles of an oblong bladder-like form, mingled with jointed pellucid filaments, the first named antheridia, the second paraphyses, and these are surrounded by several rows of spread- ing leaves constituting the perigoniwm. The antheridia are VOL. V.—-NO. IV. T 260 Mosses to be Found in May. at first filled with a semi-gelatinous loosely cellular tissue, each cellule containing a spermatozoid, which consists of a spiral fibre, having attached to it a very small oval or roundish cor- puscle, which is usually found near the middle of the spire. On the escape of the contents of these antheridia when mature, more or less of an explosive action takes place, and very soon after being launched into the water the spermatozoids begin to fidget, then to gyrate rapidly within the cells, and eventually bursting the walls of their cellules, they escape from confine- ment, and may be seen for several hours moving about in various directions in the water, as if wild with new-born joy at their escape from imprisonment. Thus far we have treated of the barren flower only, but the genus being monoicous, the fertile flower may easily be found ” by dissection at the apex of a young shoot at precisely the same season, and on the same individual plant. This flower is com- posed of slender flask-shaped bodies, called archegonia, which are mixed with jointed filaments named paraphyses, and both surrounded by a little cluster of leaves, which stand erect, and which at length become the pericheetium. In length the archegonia somewhat exceed the antheridia, but they are much more slender, indeed filiform, except towards the base, where they appear slightly tumid, and at the apex, which is somewhat expanded, the filiform connection between ~ the apex and the base being a canal in which is lodged a roundish vesicle, the nucleus or germ of the future capsule and its fruit-stalk ; and the perfect archegonium soon becomes etlarged and. swells out by the increase in bulk of the vesicle within it, which at length rends it asunder by a horizontal fissure near its base. ‘The upper part is then converted into the calyptra, and the lower becomes the vaginula, while the rudimentary vesicle itself is metamor- phosed into a fruit-stalk, its tapering base inserted firmly into the vaginula, and having its apex sheathed by the embryo calyptra. This stalk or seta goes on increasing in length until it has attained its full height, until which time the apex remains, as it were, stationary, but then it swells out, and developes into the capsule. This capsule consists of a central pillar, or column, called the columella, surrounded by a membranous pouch or bag, called the sporular sac or membrane, within which the spores, analogous to the particles of Mosses to be Found in May. 261 pollen in flowering plants, are safely lodged in rings of mother cells, till the period when they are ready to take an independent position in the field of nature. The layer of sporules being surrounded by the sporal membrane, which consists also of two rings of cells, the outer one containing green granules, the inner pellucid; and these are again surrounded by the thecal mem- brane, consisting also of two rings of cells, the inner tinged with green granules, the outer pellucid; the size of the space between these two membranes differing not only in different species of mosses, but also in the same species at different periods of growth, being in contact in some, as in Orthotrichum diaphanum, and in others, “ of which fF’. hygrometrica and Bar- tramia pomiformis are,” says Mr. Valentine, “ the most marked examples ; they are widely distant, this distance, however, con- stantly diminishing by the growth of the columella and the gradual development of the sporules ;””* and over all is the theca or outer wall, whose cellules are slightly tinged with brown. At this early stage the mouth of the capsule is closed up by the ld or operculum, and an intermediate coloured ring, the annulus, formed of large cellular tissue, which, affected by surrounding moisture, causes the lid to fall off, and disclose the beautiful peristome, whose hygrometric action regulates the escape of the ripened spores. The outer row of teeth in this double peristome is a fringy continuation of the thecal mem- brane; the inner, a like continuation of the sporal membrane. Arrived at this stage of maturity, the short branch which bore the fertile flower has become much elongated, overtopping and concealing the barren flower, which will now appear to be at the base of the stem; and amid the cells of the theca, to- wards the base of the ripe capsule, may be discovered, by a good glass, those little stomata or pores, considered by Mr. Valentine as the necessary apparatus for the admission of air, in order to give greater firmness to the coats of the spores, and the better prepare them for germination. In the young state these stomatas are very small, and much less numerous than when the theca has arrived at maturity ; and in Funaria hygrometrica we have one of the two exceptions mentioned by Mr. Valentine in the Transactions of the Iinnean Society, vol. xvii. page 240, in the form of the stomata of mosses, as observed by him. He says:—“ Of 103 British species of mosses which I have examined, 78 are furnished with stomata, their usual shape similar to the most common form in phenogamous plants,” to which he adduces only two exceptions, wnaria hygrometrica being one, each of whose stomata consisting of a single cell in the form of a hollow ring, with the sides “‘so compressed as to convert the aperture into a mere slit.” . * Tinnean Trans,, vol. xviii. page 241. 262 Mosses to be Found in May. We are not aware whether Mr. Valentine has fulfilled his hopes of turning these stomata of mosses to account in the arrangement of genera; and for ourselves we incline to prefer more obvious characteristics as the foundation of generic dis- tinctions ; because, though every trace of nature’s workings must be teemimg with interest and pleasure to the initiated, we would lay on no additional bolts and bars to impede the entrance of the uninitiated into this temple of wonders. But we have dwelt long enough on Funaria hygrometrica ; before, however, turning to the other two members of this genus which we will briefly describe, we would just remark that F. hygrometrica has received from the French the name of La Charbonniere, from its frequent occurrence on those parts of woods, heaths, and moors which have been charred by fire, : or where anything has been burnt; it ought therefore to be a constant follower in the wake of the gipsy’s camp. In the two remaining Funarias the fruit-stalk is straight, 2.e., not arcuate, and the capsules destitute of an annulus. In Funaria Hibernica, or the Irish cord-moss, the fruit-stallk throughout its length twists to the left when dry, and the capsule is shortly pyriform, with a convex and papillate lid; the leaves are ovate-oblong, spreading, sharply serrated, and gradually tapering to an acuminated point. It was origi- nally found by Mr. J. Drummond on a chalky soil, near Cork, and has since been met with by Mr. Wilson, as mentioned by him in his Bryologia Britannica, on a limestone soil, near Matlock in Derbyshire, and also near Gonway, North Wales. But, as he remarks, it is often confounded with Funaria Mihlenbergu, which strongly resembles it, but is somewhat less of stature, and which grows in similar situa- tions, namely on calcareous banks, walls, etc., forming lax patches, with stems from one to three lines only in length, very simple, leafless in the lower part, and rooting only at the base. The lower leaves are somewhat spreading or reflexed, the upper ones more erect, larger than the lower, concave, widely ovate, and suddenly acuminated, not gradually as in FI, Hibernica, and instead of being acutely serrated, the serra- tures are blunt; the capsule is still more shortly pyriform, smooth, sub-erect, somewhat constricted below the mouth when dry, and of a yellowish or reddish-brown colour. The fruit- stalk is about half an inch in length, and, as in I’. hygrometrica, the upper part twists to the right when dry, and the lower part in the opposite direction; the lid too is furnished with a reddish border, and the outer peristome is of a bright red tint. The calyptra is yellowish, the spores are granular on the surface, and twice as large as those of I’. hygrometrica. All three are found in fruit in May, and I’. Miihlenbergui Mosses to be Found in May, 263 takes its name from Dr. Muhlenberg, its first discoverer, who met with it in Pennsylvania. There are three varieties of this moss, having slight differences in the leaves. Of the Bartramiez, or apple-mosses, Bartramia pomiformis, or the common apple-moss, already alluded to, and Bartramia Oederi, Oeder’s apple-moss, both fruit in this month. The generic appellation of this genus was given in honour of Mr. Bartram, an American traveller and botanist; and its English name is descriptive of its sub-spherical capsule, which greatly resembles a miniature apple, fresh when moist, and when dry, furrowed, like a withered winter fruit. The apple-mosses grow upon rocks or upon the ground, in perennial turfy patches, bearing terminal fructification. Some- times, but rarely, they are found on the bark of trees. They differ in their inflorescence, which may be synoicous, monoi- cous, or dicicous, and in their peristome, which is sometimes single, sometimes double, and sometimes entirely wanting ; but the form of the capsule is so marked, that they can hardly be mistaken for any other. The rapture which we felt, now many years ago, on first meeting with some specimens of this exquisite genus will, we are sure, be a life-long joy. _ B. pomiformis, or the common apple-moss, may be found on dry shady banks in a sandy soil, and one variety, with longer and crisped leaves and long slender branches, inhabits the fissures of sub-alpine rocks. With densely tufted stems of a glaucous green, dichoto- mously branched, and varying in length from half an inch to two inches, Bartramia pomiformis has crowded leaves, more or less spreading, linear-lanceolate, narrow and tapering, the border tumid, with a double row of spinulose serratures ; the nerve sub-excurrent, and in the dry state the leaves are some- what crisped or tortuous. The barren and fertile flowers are contiguous ; the fruit-stalk from half an inch to an inch long, bearing the sub-globular cernuous or inclined capsule, of a reddish-brown colour, and, as in all the genus, furrowed when dry ; the lid is smalland sub-conical; the peristome double, the inner shorter than the outer teeth, and sometimes having cilia, sometimes without. Oy Bartramia Oederi, Oeder’s apple-moss, is also found on shady rocks, but chiefly on such as are calcareous and in a moist situation. It grows in soft, lax, extensive patches, of a dark green colour; its slender stems being beset with radicles, and reaching a length of from one to three inches; its leaves re- curved, and spreading every way, shorter than in other British species, and not sheathing nor suddenly dilated at the base, lanceolote and sharply keeled, the margin recurved and serrated at the apex, and the nerve sub-excurrent. In the dry state the leaves are crisped. 264 Mosses to be Found in May. The capsule is small and oblique, with a rather large mouth in proportion to the size of the fruit, the lid plano-convex, and the fruit-stalk short, scarcely half an inch in length. Both these fruit in May. Bartramia ithyphylla,* or the straight-leaved, apple-moss, grows on alpine and sub-alpine rocks, is common on the rocks above Greenock and on various mountains, both in Scotland and Wales; it has also been found near Todmorden, in Lancashire. With rigid leaves of a bright yellowish green, subulato- setaceous, more or less spreading from a pale sheathing dilated base, ‘‘ by which character, and the broad predominant nerve,” Wilson says, “this species is easily distinguished from every — other British species.” The fruit-stalk is about an inch in. length, and the leaves are straight when dry; hence its dis-» tinctive appellation. Bartramia rigida, or the rigid apple-moss, is a dwarfish species, with very short slender and fragile stems, from two lmes to half an inch in height, downy, of a red colour, and having dark reddish radicles. From the branches being fas- ciculate, and slightly recurved with crowded leaves, it grows in compact tufts. It is found on shady banks in mountainous situations in Ireland. The leaves are lanceolate, tapering upwards to a narrow point, erecto-patent, straight, and rather rigid, the margin reflexed and serrated, rough on the back, with small roundish prominences or glands, which also cover the strong excurrent nerve. ‘The areole of the leaf haye an oblong-quadrate form. The fruit-stalk is about three-quarters of an inch in length, of reddish hue, and bearing the com- paratively large sub-spherical capsule, which is at first oblique, but subsequently cernuous, of a reddish brown, and strongly furrowed when dry. A double peristome surrounds the mouth, the outer teeth of a reddish brown, and rather short, the inner still shorter and sometimes deficient or rudimentary. The lid is convex and apiculate; the spores are reddish, partaking of the general hue of the plant, and the inflorescence is monoicous; the barren and fertile flowers approximating; and the fruit ripens in September and October. Bartramia fontana, or the fountain apple-moss, grows im wet places, especially near springs, as the name implies, and is found chiefly in mountainous countries. It has elongated stems, from one to six inches long, or even more, downy, with blackish or reddish radicles, and matted together in dense, extensive, yellowish or glaucous-green patches, the branches variously ramified, slender or robust, sometimes fasciculate and erect, sometimes disposed in a stellate manner; the leaves dimorphous, either ovate-acuminate, short and appressed to * From .6bs, placed upright, erect, or straight, and pvaads, foliage. Mosses to be Found in May. 265 the stem, or longer, and lanceolate, spreading, or secund, ob- scurely plicate at the base, bluntly toothed or serrated, and having the margin recurved below, with a sub-excurrent nerve, which sometimes ceases below the apex. The leaves are also papillose at the back, and those of the principal stem are broader than those on the branches. The capsule is of thick texture, and large size, of a reddish-brown colour, curved, and longitudinally furrowed when dry; the teeth of the outer peri- stome are closely barred, and the inner furnished with cilia, bundled two or three together. The fruit-stalk is long and of considerable tenacity. The spores are rather large and red- dish ; the inflorescence dioicous, the inner leaves of the peri- gonium obtuse and horizontally spreading from a broad concave base, the nerve so very faint as to be visible only with difficulty and always ceasing below the apex. There are several varieties: variety alpina has short robust stems, with densely leafy branches, of an ovate-lanceolate form, — mucronate, and having shorter fruit-stalks. Variety falcata has yellowish falcato-secund leaves, with a thick reddish nerve, and having the branches curved at the apex. Variety pumila has very slender short stems, with small narrow leaves, and a small capsule. The inflorescence is dioicous and it fruits in June. Bartranna calearia, the thick-nerved apple-moss, has also a dioicous inflorescence, and grows, too, in wet places, but seems confined to limestone districts, and has longer and more rigid leaves than B. fontana; they are also less papillose, have a stronger nerve, larger areole, and the margin is not recurved : the perigonial leaves also differ considerably, being tapering to a very acute point, and nerved to the apex, while the teeth of the peristome, instead of being closely, are but remotely, barred: It has been found in the Highlands of Scotland, near Todmorden, in Lancashire, and at Hale Moss, in Cheshire. Its fruiting season is July, and it grows in dense patches of a more intense green colour than B. fontana. In Bartramia Halleriana, Haller’s apple-moss, the inflores- cence is monoicous, the stems are somewhat elongated, from one to three inches in height, with irregular, but fastigiate branches, %.e., the branches, wherever they begin, all reach an equal height. It forms soft, lax tufts, of a bright yellowish green colour, but as the stem descends it becomes covered with radicles of a rich brown tint. The long slender leaves are linear-subulate, and seem to spread in every direction from an erect dilated, slightly sheathing base, which is pale, and somewhat shining—sometimes however they are sub-secund ; they are roughish on both sides, serrulate at the margin, and are tortuous or crisped when dry. The fruit-stalk is very short, 266 Mosses to be Found in May. not as long as the leaves, only about two lines in length, curved, and seeming to be lateral, in consequence of the growth of innovations, which are usually solitary; but the flowers, when examined at an early stage, are always found to be truly terminal. The moss is an inhabitant of alpine and sub-alpime rocks, and fruits in June and July, sometimes bearing two or three capsules together. Bartramia arcuata, or the curve-stalked oapple-moss, strikes us, at first sight, as an exaggeration of B. Halleriana, with red fruit-stalks, which, though longer, are still short and arcuate, being only about twice or thrice the length of the capsule, which hangs sub-pendulous upon it, and, as in Halleri- ana, have the appearance of being lateral from the same cause, . namely, the growth of innovations. It, too, grows in extensive yellowish-green patches, but the stems reach from two to four inches in height, densely covered with reddish-brown radicles, and the leaves, which are plicated, are of an ovate-lanceolate form, shining, sheathing and erect at the base, thence widely Spreading, with a nearly plain serrulate margin, and an excur- rent or sub-excurrent nerve. It grows on moist heaths and on the rocky banks of streams in hilly places, forming dense masses ; and though its rich golden globular capsules are rarely met with, its bright yellow-green foliage contrasts agreeably with the downy fuscous radicles that so thickly clothe the lower part of the stem, and this contrast renders it a most attractive object even in the barren state. Its frpiting season is September and October, two or three months later than BD, Halleriana, and it may be met with on the Sidlaw Hills, above the village of Auchterhouse, in fruit; it is also said to be abundant at Lodore Waterfall, near Keswick, and in fructification at Lidford Fall in Devonshire, and at Cromaglonn, near Killarney, Ireland; also sparingly in fruit near Llyn Ogwen in Carnaryonshire. Another species, Bartramia cespitosa, hitherto considered Swedish, has lately been found by Mr. Wilson, in a new marsh near Warrington ; but not having seen a specimen, we are unable to describe it. Bartramidula Wilsonii, or the beardless dwarf apple-moss, is amost beautiful little plant, somewhat resembling Bartramia fontana in miniature, but its exquisite little pink capsules are sub-pendulous or quite pendulous, and hang on reddish arcuate fruit-stalks, often three or four together, and resembling full short pears rather than apples in outline, are smooth, shining when dry, with thin, somewhat pellucid walls, which are of soft texture, slightly rugose in the dry state, but not striated, and having a small mouth destitute of peristome, and closed with a small sub-conical lid, which is again surmounted by a small, Mosses to be Found in May. 267 cuculate, but very fugacious calyptra. The vaginula is oblong, and the spores are reddish, granular on the surface, and, not- withstandmg the diminutive stature of the moss, its stems scarcely reaching half an inch in height, they are even some- what larger than the spores of Bartramia fontana. The branches are fascicled, two, three, or more together, and sub-erect; the leaves ovate-acuminate, or lanceolate-acuminate, slightly secund and sub-erect, the nerve reaching nearly to the apex, or some- times excurrent; they are finely serrated in the upper part, and are composed of rather lax oblong cellules. The fruiting season is October, and it has been found growing in different iocalities on the mountains of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland; but Mr. Wilson says, “‘It has not yet been observed in any other coun- try, and is liable to be overlooked on account, of its diminutive size.” Of the two other species of apple-moss, Catoscopiwm nigritum, or the lurid apple-moss, is somewhat allied in habit to the Bar- trama, but Bridel and Wilson make a separate genus for it, named xatw from down, and, cxo7réw to look, in allusion to the appearance of the capsule, which suddenly bends forward, as if looking down from the top of its seta, or solitary elongated pedestal. It is small, roundish, smooth, shining, and of a thick texture, almost horny, with a rather oblique mouth, destitute of an annulus, and having a small conical lid, which covers a single peristome of sixteen short, lanceolate, or truncate teeth, trans- versely barred, irregular, and marked with a medial line, which leads one to suspect that, as in some other mosses, it may be the junction of two teeth cemented, as it were, into one; some- times, also, obscure traces of an inner peristome may be dis- covered, The spores are comparatively large and smooth; the calyptra small, shaped like a little hood, smooth, and usually fugacious, though occasionally found remaining on, or rather adhering to the fruit-stalk beneath the capsuie, which, when mature, is black, hence its specific name. The inflorescence is dioicous, with terminal flowers; she leaves lanceolate, carinate, nerved, somewhat recurved, and | spreading ; the areole small, quadrate, and opaque, and though the species is rare, being found only in a few places, it is peren- nial in its native habitats, which are moist alpine rocks, or sub- alpine marshy places. It is plentiful on Ben-y-gloe, near Blair, in Athol, and we have seen specimens brought from the sands of Barrie, on the coast of Forfarshire—a circumstance which goes to prove what has been often asserted, namely, that the climate of the lofty mountain and that of the seashore are very closely allied, and the sight of this little tenant of the mountain wild, and of the lowly beach, ever brings with it associations both pleasing and sublime. It grows in soft green tufts, the 268 Mosses to be Found in May. stems varying in height from two to-six inches, or even more, slender, almost filiform, flexuose, and beset with reddish brown radicles in the lower part. “. The only remaining example is the naked apple-moss, Dis- celium nudum, to which also a separate genus is given, named from dus, twice or two, and oxndos, a leg, because the teeth are split into two divisions from the base to the middle, giving the appearance of legs. They are also jointed. Disceliwm nudum is the only known species of this singular genus, which seems to combine in itself some of the attributes of three others; for example, it resembles Catoscopium im its capsule, Phascwm in its mode of growth, and Trematodon in its peristome. Like the Phascums, it is almost stemless, and, like them, grows from a conferva-like thallus, which in Disceliwm has a green velvety» appearance; the leaves are few and imbricated, concave, entire, — ovate-lanceolate, and almost destitute of nerve; the areole lax, oblong-hexagonal, and diaphanous. Their number is about six or eight, and they seem to be solely or chiefly a gemmiform envelope for the inflorescence. When old they are of a pale reddish hue, and the green velvety thallus withers and becomes discoloured soon after the formation of the fruit; and frequently by the action of the frost in winter it decays and mixes itself with the mould of the substratum, even before the ripening of the capsules, which does not occur till February or March. The capsule is sub-globose, as we have already said, resembling Catoscopium, but is reddish in colour, and more or less cernu- ous ; the lid, however, is large, conical, and more or less acute ;-- the annulus, too, which is sub-persistent, is large, composed of a double row of cellules; the vaginula oblong, not much thicker than the fruit-stalk, which latter is about an inch long, reddish, and flexuose ; the calyptra is narrow, smooth, and subulate, and splitting on one side throughout its whole length, the fissure ascending spirally. Like that of Catoscopium, it is fugacious, or when entire at the base, which is frequently the case, being longer than the fruit, it remains attached to the fruit-stalk beneath the capsule. ‘The spores are of moderate size, punctulate and reddish. The favourite habitats of the species are the clayey declivi- ties of the North of England and Scotland. It was first dis- covered by Mr. George Cayley near Manchester; Mr. Don also found it by the side of the river Tay near Perth; and it has since been met with in several places, especially in the neighbourhood of Manchester, turning the vicinity of that busy scene of manual labour into classic ground for the botanist and the lover of nature’s most lovely forms, and linking it with associations and recollections, apart from the every-day tur- moil of the struggle for existence. t Molecular Motions in-Iiving Bodies. ~ 269 MOLECULAR MOTIONS IN LIVING BODIES. BY HENRY J. SLACK, F.G.S., Member of the Microscopical Society. Bzrorz suggesting inquiry into the part which molecular mo- tions perform in the growth and decay of livmg organisms, I shall endeavour to make the subject more generally interesting by a few preliminary observations, which may assist those to whom it is entirely new. In order to know what molecular movements are, a small drop of water should be placed ona glass slide, just touched with a fine camel-hair brush whose point has been dipped in gamboge, then covered with a thin glass, and viewed with a z objective and second eye-piece, or with a higher power, if one is at hand. The scene disclosed to the eye is singularly strikmg when first observed, and may be frequently seen without losing the interest it originally inspires. Thousands © of little round particles are perceived to keep up an active fidgetty motion, sometimes approaching, sometimes receding, rolling, quivering, shaking, and comporting themselves not unlike a swarm of live creatures suddenly frightened and not at all clear what they are about. If the water does not evapo- rate, the spectacle may be watched for hours, until, at length, it usually happens that the particles adhere to the glass, and quiet is restored. ‘The French call these movements ‘ Brownian,” after their discoverer, the famous English botanist, and they may be pro- duced with any material not soluble in water, provided the size of the particles is proportioned to their own specific gravity and to that of the fluid. What is required is, that the particles shall be freely suspended in the liquid, and be of minute di- mensions. Substances of nearly the same specific gravity as water will have little tendency to rise or fall, and that tendency is easily controlled, for a time, by reducing them to a moderate degree of fineness. The particles of the water cohere with a certain force, so that a greater force is necessary to make any substance move either upwards or downwards in that fluid. It is more easy to move through a light fluid than a dense one. Fresh water, for example, opposes less resistance than salt. Every bather has noticed the difference between trying to touch the bottom in a river and in the sea, while Dead Sea water is so heavy as to make swimming an easy task for an animal not specifically heavier than a man. In like manner limpid fluids oppose less resistance than sticky ones; and an insect that can — easily through water, is sadly impeded when immersed in glue. 270 Molecular Motions nv Living Bodies, When any insoluble body is pressed under water, it dis- places its own bulk of that fluid. If it is lighter than that bulk, it is forced up, and floats. If heavier, it is forced down by gravitation, and sinks. But although the specific gravity of a substance is greater than that of water, it will still float, pro- vided its surface is extended, so that the resistance of the water, arising from the cohesion of its particles, is made equal, or more than equal to, the weight of the substance, or force, with which it gravitates. Thus a film of gold leaf will float, while the same weight of gold in a pellet falls fast. From these facts it results that im order to cause a heavy metal like gold or platina to be suspended in water, with little tendency to fall, its particles must be reduced to such a degree of fineness that their weight is nearly counterbalanced by the resistance which the fluid offers to the passage of their bulk, This can be accomplished more easily than might be expected, because the weight of round bodies diminishes much faster than their size. The rule is, that the contents of spheres are as the cubes of their diameter, so that if a ball three inches in diameter weighed 27, another ball one inch in diameter would only weigh 1. Thus a moderate reduction in the size of a round particle makes a great deal of difference in its weight. When a minute particle is freely suspended in a highly mobile fluid like water, the slightest force of any kind will disturb its equilibrium, and impart some motion; but exactly what force causes the molecular movements does not appear to have been ascertained. Dr. Carpenter gives an interesting summary of what is known, in his work on the Microscope, from which we will make a quotation. He says :—- “Nothing is better adapted to show it (the molecular motion) than a minute portion of gamboge, indigo, or carmine, rubbed up with water, for the particles of these substances that are not dissolved, but only suspended, are of sufficiently large size to be easily distinguished with a magnifying power of 250 diameters, and are seen in perpetual locomotion, ‘Their move- ment is chiefly of an oscillatory kind, but they also rotate back- wards and forwards upon their axis, and they gradually change their places in the field of view. It may be observed that the movement of the smallest particles is the most energetic, and that the largest are quite motionless, while those of inter- mediate size move but with comparative inertness. The move- ment is not due, as some have imagined, to evaporation of the liquid, for it continues without the least abatement of energy in a drop of aqueous fluid that is completely surrounded by oil, and is therefore cut off from all possibility of evapora- tion; and it has been known to continue for many years in a small quantity of fluid enclosed between two glasses in an air- Molecular Motions in Inwing Bodies. 271 tight case. It is, however, greatly accelerated and rendered more energetic by heat; and this seems to show that it is due either directly to some calorical changes continually taking place in the fluid, or to some obscure chemical action between the solid particles and the fluid, which is indirectly promoted by heat.” The Micrographic Dictionary states “that neither light, elec- tricity, magnetism, nor chemical re-agents exert any effect upon it;”” but it may perhaps be worth while to verify these asser- tions. After witnessing the molecular movements with gamboge, as recommended at the beginning of this paper, let two minute drops, one of water and the other of gum water, be placed near each other on a slide. Put a little gamboge into the water-drop, and then cover both drops with a light thin piece of glass. The two drops will mix slowly, and it is then easy to see the gradual effect of the introduction of the gum in arresting the motion, by diminishing the mobility of the fluid. Tosee the effects of heat, | place the microscope upright, lay a thin strip of sheet zinc on the stage, having a little hole cut in it, and long enough that one eud shall project an inch or two beyond the stop on one side ; then place a piece of thin glass over the hole in the zinc, put a drop of gamboge water upon it, cover with another thin glass, place a spirit-lamp under the projecting part of the zinc plate, and watch the result as the heat is conducted to the fluid and its contents. The heat gives rise to currents in the water- drop, and the additional motion thus imparted—one of distinct translation in a given course—must not be confounded with _the peculiar molecular fidget which will go on with accelerated velocity at the same time. Passing from instances of molecular motion in water-drops, it is interesting to watch it in er living bodies. In the cells of confervee it may be frequently met with, and it is probably con- cerned in the so-called “swarming process” of | § desmids and other simple plants. When the We y gonoo. chlorophyl of conferva cells is undergoing de- cay, the molecular movements may be continually seen; but it is not every mode of decay that breaks up the larger masses into the little particles convenient for its exhibition. Fig. 1 represents its appearance, so far as stationary dots can indicate it, in a common conferva, and I have seen it conspicuously shown in the cells of a moss often found in ponds—Fontinalis antipyretica. Although frequently associated with decay, it apparently also forms part of the series of operations that take place in 272 Molecular Motion in Inving Bodies. healthy cells, and I think it is exhibited in many of the condi- tions under which the protoplasm of plants is engaged in forming new organs, as well as in other cases in which previously existing forms are being taken to pieces. Ina physical point of view, all that is required is the presence of molecules of the right size, in proportion to their weight, in a fluid of suitable density, and not too viscid. The higher the power employed, the more extensively this kind of motion can be traced. With my jth I have seen it well displayed in extremely minute vacuoles of ciliated infusoria, and recently was much struck with it in blood corpuscles taken from the gills of tadpoles in an early stage. I believe I am right in stating that true blood corpuscles result from embryonic or primary cells, differmg considerably from perfect blood corpuscles either white or red. In my tadpole babies the particles circulating through the gills im close, chain-like array, pre- sented, when immersed in water, instead. of the characteristic reptilian form, the appearance of Fig. 2, and all the little particles represented by the engraver’s dots, were in strong molecular motion, which I presume to be connected with the process of develop- ment. White nucleated corpuscles are gradually formed, giving rise, in their turn, to the red. The molecular motions must tend in living vessels, as they do in pails or jugs, to prevent a fluid from clearing by the sink- ing down of small suspended matters. They must also promote any chemical and physical action between the fluid and the particles which are continually rubbing themselves against it, and they may thus perform an important function in the pro- cesses both of vital construction and decay. I append to these brief notes a few extracts fram two very important papers by Professor Lionel Beale, which appeared in the January and April numbers (1864) of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science :— . MINUTE PARTICLES OF GHRMINAL MATTER IN THE BLOOD. “In the blood of man and the higher animals a great num- ber of minute particles, of the same general appearance and refractive power as the matter of which the white blood cor- puscles are composed, may be demonstrated. Some of these particles probably, under certain conditions, grow into ordinary white corpuscles, while others, after increasing to a certain size, become red blood corpuscles.*” Dr. Beale adds that both * Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science, April, 1864, page 48. ‘The Phosphates used in Agriculture. 273 white and red corpuscles vary much more in size than is usually supposed. FOUR KINDS OF MATTER IN THE BLOOD. *< In the blood we have—1. Matter that is living and active. 2. Matter that has ceased to live, and which now possesses peculiar properties and chemical composition. 3. Matter which results from the disintegration of the formed material; and 4. Matter (pabulum) which is about to live, or about to be con- verted into living matter. . . . . I believe the colourless corpuscles, and the colourless nuclei of the red corpuscles, consist of matter in a living state, while there are reasons for concluding that the coloured material has ceased to exhibit vital properties.”’* ; SHAPE OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES. “Tf the oval corpuscles of a frog be left at rest ina fluid of about the same density as themselves, they become completely spherical, and a similar change occurs in the oval blood corpus- cles of all animals that I have examined.” + THE PHOSPHATES USED IN AGRICULTURE. BY DR. T. L. PHIPSON, F.C.S. LONDON, ETC. It is now some twenty years since the great truth of the gradual exhaustion of soils by continued cultivation began to dawn vividly, and with all its force, upon the agricultural public of Great Britain. Numerous analyses of soils and plants, under- taken, in the first instance, to satisfy an ever-increasing curiosity, soon demonstrated, in a most forcible and practical manner, the nature of the ingredients which our crops take yearly from the soil, and which, in a country so thickly popu- lated as England, it is indispensable to restore in some way or other to the soil, in order to keep up a proper degree of fertility. The art of manuring, practised for centuries before, began to be understood within the last quarter of a century only; and though the labours of Liebig in Germany, and Boussin- gault im France, preceded by those of Sir Humphry Davy in this country, have contributed not a little to our present know- ledge of the subject, yet in no country have the influences of science been so considerable, so gigantic, as in our own. The reason of this, doubtless, lies in the actual population of Great Britain, of which the average to the square mile is greater * Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science, January, 1864, page 34. t+ Ibid, page 34. 274 The Phosphates used in Agriculture. than that of any other country ; consequently, the soil here is caused to do its utmost, and the effects of exhaustion have been sooner and more keenly felt. Although scientific agri- culture, as regards its diffusion among the people, is still in a deplorable state on the continent of Europe, as may be seen by glancing from time to time at the periodical literature of Belgium, France, Germany, and Italy, the time will certainly come when the art of manufacturmg and applying manures of all descriptions will be as actively pursued in these countries as in England at the present day. Three of the more important ingredients which soils lose by cultivation, and which it is necessary to restore to them in greater or smaller quantities, are potash, nitrogen, and phos- phate of lime. Nature herself supplies these substances to_ the soil in various ways, and in quantity sufficient for the growth of wild plants. Thus, potash is washed into the soil by the rain-waters which flow over granitic and felspar rocks, so that every little stream contains some of it; nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, is constantly present in the atmosphere, and phosphate of lime is very widely distributed over the globe. Moreover, the excrements of animals contain all three. Another ingredient very essential to vegetable life is carbonic acid, of which there is so large a supply in the atmosphere, in the streams, and rocks of the globe, that it is rarely necessary to supply it artificially to our cultivated crops. I have said that nature supplies a sufficiency of these more important constituents of the fertile soil, to ensure the growth and luxuriance of wild plants. But in agriculture we are dealing with an artificial state of things, and the natural supply no longer suffices to maintain fertility in our cultivated soils. In our present system of manuring potash is supplied by farm-yard manure, sometimes by wood-ashes, and by manures made by drying the excrements of animals (sewage, etc.) The first and last of these supply also ammonia and phosphates. Our chief sources of nitrogen are Peruvian guano, nitrate of soda, and sulphate of ammonia (from the gas-works). The first of these supplies, at the same time, phosphate of lime, and the last is sometimes introduced into artificial manures, such as the ammoniacal superphosphates. Our sources of phosphate of lime are most numerous, and it is to these alone that I shall devote the present paper. A few years ago, all the phosphorus used for the manufacture of lucifer matches was extracted from bones, the phosphate of lime used in the various manufactories was likewise obtained from bones. ‘These were principally collected in the streets and waste places, at butchers’ establishments, etc. Since the manufacture of superphosphate of lime began for the use of the The Phosphates used in Agriculture. 275 farmer, not only immense quantities of ox bones have been im- ported yearly into England from South America and other countries, but a large number of natural deposits of phosphate of lime have been discovered and utilized without delay in the interests of agriculture and manufactures. It was shown by Liebig that it was of little use to supply ground bones to the soil in order to obtain a rapid result, for the bone earth takes a long time to become soluble by the action of the carbonic acid, and other vegetable acids of the soil, and cannot penetrate into the tissues of plants until it is so dissolved. In order, there- fore, to furnish plants with phosphate of lme in a soluble state, Liebig proposed that bones or other phosphates should be treated with sulphuric acid. Hence arose the manufacture of superphosphate or soluble phosphate of lime, which has, of late years, taken such extension in England. It is to this manufac- ture principally that is owmg the enormous importations of phosphate of lime in various forms which arrive in Great Britain from all parts of the globe. It was probably the introduction of guano from South America that brought certain practical minds to consider more attentively the best means of restoring fertility of exhausted soils and of keeping up the fertility of those not yet exhausted. This extraordinary and powerful manure, the enormous supplies of which appear to have been stored up by Providence for the actual wants of agriculture, as the endless supplies of coal have accumulated in bygone ages to supply the wants of our manufactories, was brought to Hurope in 1804 by Alexander von Humboldt as a scientific ewriosity. Its valuable nature was not entirely appreciated by the publicat large until about 1838, when large quantities of it began to be imported into England asa manure. ‘T'wo years later (1840), Liebig brought out his well-known work on agricultural chemistry, making known the principle of the manufacture of superphosphate of lime, and in 1842, Mr. Lawes began to manufacture this superphosphate manure. Guano being, as is well-known, the accumulated excrement of sea-fowl (and, consequently, having the same composition as the excrements of pigeons and other domestic birds), is abun- dant in many parts of the globe. In certain tropical regions (Peru, Chinca Isles, etc.), where it never rains, this guano is very rich in urate, oxalate, and phosphate of ammonia, besides containing about 22 or 23 per cent. of phosphate of lime. But in localities which are frequently visited by hurricanes and much rain, the organic constituents and salts of ammonia are washed out, and the mimeral constituents increase in proportion: the guano becomes less valuable as a manure, by loss of its ammo- niacal compounds, but constitutes a plentiful source of phosphate VOL. V.—NO. IV. U 276 The Phosphates used in Agriculture. of lime. Such are the phosphates known as “ West India phos- phate,” “ Bolivian guano,” etc. These contain from 40 to 60 per cent. (and sometimes more) of ordinary phosphate of lime, whilst their per-centage of nitrogen (ammonia) dwindles down to 2,1, or even 0°5 per cent., as the phosphate increases. Here, then, is an abundant source of phosphate of lime. But several West India islands furnish a species of hard rock, of very peculiar aspect, consisting chiefly of phosphate of lime. Many persons consider that this rock has been derived from guano, supposing it to be the result of exposure to the atmosphere for thousands of years; others imagine it to be guano modified by volcanic action. I have examined this mineral phosphate,* and find that it contains not only phosphate of lime, but also a considerable proportion of phosphate of alumina—a substance not met with im guano: it is, im fact, a compound of phosphate of lime and phosphate of alumina, con- taining about 17 per cent. of the latter, and 65 per cent. of the former. As this rock is principally derived from the little island of Sombrero, I called it Sombrerite. This is another tolerably abundant source of phosphate of lime, much used in the manufacture of superphosphate manure. Another hard phosphatic rock, of a similar dis eosnlaeuaae is found upon Monk Island, in the Gulf of Venezuela. Although I have received for analysis in my laboratory many hundred specimens of the different phosphates mentioned in this paper, I have never yet met with this one from Monk Island; but I have reason to believe it is a substance similar in all respects to Sombrerite. Whether it be so or not cannot be determined by the few incomplete analyses that appear to have been made of it hitherto. However, it constitutes a cheap source of phos- phate to manufacturers of superphosphate manure; and it appears to contain 78 to 80 per cent. of phosphate of lime. Another, and most abundant source of phosphate of lime is, 1am happy to say, an indigenous one, and one which is very extensively utilized in the manufacture of superphosphate. I allude to the Cambridge and Suffolk coprolites. These are hard nodules, somewhat cylindrical, and having rounded edges. The Cambridge coprolites are found in the upper green sand, where they form extensive deposits, and are so intimately mixed, on their surface, with the green sand itself, that their true colour i is only seen when they are broken. They contain 60 to 65 per cent. of phosphate of lime, sometimes rather more, and when ground form a yellowish-white powder. They are supposed to be the fossil excrement of extinct animals, hence their curious name, derived from the Greek; but we have not * Journal of the Chemical Society, 1862. The Phosphates used in Agriculture. 277 sufficient proof of this extraordinary supposition. However, the revelations of geology during the past twenty years have been so exceedingly wonderful, that one is readily tempted to admit that some of these coprolites are the fossil excrement of certain extinct animals, probably reptiles, and therefore cor- respond somewhat in their chemical composition to guano which has been deprived of its organic matter by atmospheric influences. Specimens of such guano have given me, upon analysis, from 15 to 30 per cent. of carbonate of lime, which resembles the proportion of carbonate of lime invariably present in every description of coprolites. The main thing that regards the agriculturist or manure manufacturer, however, is their chemical composition, by which these Cambridge coprolites appear to be the cheapest source of phosphate of lime at present known. The Suffolk coprolites are dark brown nodules, some of which have very much the appearance of fossil bones rounded by the action of the sea. They always contain a certain amount of red oxide of iron, and about 56 per cent. of phosphate of ime; they are consequently rather less valuable than the pure Cambridge coprolites ; more- over, they appear to belong to the tertiary formations. All these coprolites, and, indeed, all natural phosphates used in agriculture, except apatite (see further), contain a cer- tain amount of carbonate of lime and insoluble silicious matter, and it is important to manufacturers and agriculturists to have the proportions of these determined accurately, otherwise they have no control over adulteration, and no basis to work upon in the manufacture of artificial manures. Along with Cambridge coprolites I have found fragments of fossil bone—bones of reptiles, probably—showing the same chemical composition as the rounded nodules or coprolites themselves. ‘The Suffolk coprolites appear to be chiefly fossil bone, more or less impregnated with phosphate of iron, etc. But the whole of the Upper Green Sand formation of Eng- land is characterized by a wide diffusion of phosphoric acid in the shape of phosphate of lime. My attention was called to this some years ago, by a relation who forwarded to me avery large specimen of fossil wood from the Green Sand of the Isle of Wight, which, upon being submitted to analysis, gave me an enormous proportion of phosphate of lime—in fact, it was chiefly formed of this substance and fluorspar—though it was not apatite ;* and I learnt afterwards that Mr. Thomas Way had formerly examined several fossil polyps, sponges, etc., from the Green Sand, which gave a very large per-centage of phosphate of lime. * See Report of British Association, 1861, and Chemical News, 1861. 278 The Phosphates used in Agriculture. This proves to us that a great’ amount of phosphates has been diffused through the Upper Green Sand formations, may-be by the accumulated excrement of myriads of fish and large rep- tiles which inhabited this country at the remote geological periods to which these formations belong. I have since analyzed many other sedimentary rocks and fossils, in order to discover whether they contained any notable quantity of phosphate of lime, but rarely found more than one or two per cent., frequently a mere trace only. However, there exist, doubtless, other sources of phosphate yet to be dis- covered. If we admit that the mineral phosphate Sombrerite and that of Monk Island be similar minerals, and have been derived, by some unknowngeological process, from guano; if we admit, more- over, that the coprolites found in Cambridge and Suffolk are, like those of the Coal and Lias formations, true fossil excrements, - mixed here and there with bone ; and, thirdly, if we admit that the other numerous and above-named fossils (wood, sponges, polyps, etc.) fossilized by phosphate of lime, be the result of — an impregnation of organic substances by the excrementitious — matter of animals now extinct, what a splendid example we have here of applied paleontology. For since agricultural chemistry began its rapid development, all these “ fossil excre- ments 7” have become valuable as a means of aiding us to keep up the fertility of our soils, to increase our wheat crops, and to have an abundant and cheap supply of bread. We are thus tempted to class all phosphates used in agriculture, including bones, bone-ash, etc., as derived from organized beings that have once flourished upon our globe. A But we have another source of phosphate of lime in the coarse variety of apatite of Estremadura, which appears to have had no connection with organized beings of any description, and cannot be considered as a fossil. The Estremadura phos- phate met with in commerce is the mineral apatite in the massive form; it is abundant in Spain, and may be in other countries also, but up to the present time it does not appear to be so plentiful as the other phosphates mentioned in this paper. However, it is of all known substances found in nature that which contains the most phosphate of lime, the per-centage of — which in the commercial specimens averages from 85 to 87 per cent., and in absolutely pure specimens as much as 92. The remaining phosphates used in agriculture are bones, bone-ash, andanimal charcoal. 'The two latter are merely burnt bone. Bones contain the peculiar phosphate known as “bone- — earth,” equivalent to about 56 per cent. of ordinary tribasic — phosphate of lime. When ground, they often become mixed with silica and other impurities. Hnormous cargoes of ox- — Snow Crystals. 279 bone, either sun-dried or in the shape of bone-ash, are imported from South America into England. Bone-ash is bone burnt im contact with the air until its organic matter is destroyed ; it yields a quantity of bone phos- phate equivalent to 70 or 90 per cent. of ordinary phosphate of lime, according to its degree of purity. When burnt without contact of avr, animal charcoal is obtained ; this is used to clarify sugar, Juice, etc., and when spent is burnt overagain. After beimg thus burnt twice or thrice, it becomes comparatively use- less to the sugar-refiners, and is sold to manufacturers of super- phosphate. According to a number of analysis made of this substance in my laboratory, it may be said to average from 70 to 80 per cent. of phosphate of lime. Such, then, are the substances which furnish our agricul- turists, our lucifer-match manufacturers, our colour-makers, etc., with their supplies of phosphate of lime. It is needless, perhaps, to add that agriculture absorbs by far the greatest portion of this phosphate, and we may be thankful that there exists so plentiful a supply of it. In a future paper I will con- _ sider our present sources of ammonia. SNOW CRYSTALS. BY E. J. LOWE, ESQ., F.R.A.S., ETC. W3EN we observe the snow beating against our windows, or being drifted into heaps by the wind, we regard it with interest, we admire its dazzling whiteness, and we are thankful to look upon its carpet, because it is a protection to tender plants from the injuries of severe frost. Few of us, however, are aware of the exquisite beauty of some of these snow crystals; very various in form, and sometimes exceedingly intricate, it be- comes impossible to do justice to a snow-storm. The difficul- ties to be overcome are great: a lovely star descends and alights upon a leaf; paper and pencil are at hand, and the mag- nifying-glass reveals its beauties, but before it can be sketched in all probability it has melted and gone. If snow falls in showers, and the temperature of the air is above the freezing- point, it is almost impossible to sketch the crystals. Once or twice a year the weather is sometimes favourable for these investigations, and such a day was February 10, 1864. Let us take this day as an example :— There had been a severe frost, the temperature falling to 158° at the height of four feet, and to 13°1° on the grass. The morning was overcast, foggy, dark, and having a peculiar yellow 280 Snow Crystals. smoky appearance, that is not uncommon on the advent of snow. At 9h. 15m. a.m. few snow crystals commenced falling; at 10h. 30m. a.m. the temperature at four feet was 25°8°, wet bulb thermometer 25°3°; on the grass, 24°7°; whilst, if we turn to the internal temperature, we shall observe that below the surface— At two inches on drained land it was 25°8° Atfour ,, os A 22°3° At six ,, es Bs 20°8° At two inches on undrained land it was 22°8° At four ,, A be 20°5e Aime "5 rN = 20°8° The ground and air were, therefore, in such a condition that- — the snow would not melt. At first the snow crystals were solid, opaque, rounded, and confused in the interior, yet exhibiting the usual six-sided or bexagonal form. Amongst these crystals Fig. 1 a was detected, resembling six small feathers fastened together, and presently another, Fig. 1 5, not unlike an arrange- ment of fern fronds, having a central opaque star. From this time (10h. 15m. a.m.) the crystals were most beautiful. , 14 | 80°279) 35°8) 84°7| *96|°219| 37-2 | 84-8) 2'4/10, 10, ‘10 N, H, 8 by E. “0 » 15 | 80-292) 32°9| 32°0| *97|°199| 34:6 | 29-2) 5:4/10, 10, 10 EH, E by N, Ef by N. se » 16 |30:238 35°2| 30°3| -84/ +187} 38-8 |31-4| 7-4/10, 9,10/SE by E, SE by B, Eby S.| C Sky | “56 See i nest nee all vee ol PANO eNO MOL sions vate ves y », 18 | 80-114) 41°7| 41°8) 1:00] 281) 44-4 | 37-0} 7:4/10, 10,10) ENE, E by N, NE by N. ‘0 » 19 | 30°207) 43°9| 40°2) +88) :266} 47-0 | 39-1) 79/10, 7,10 8, SSW, 8S. =U », 20 | 80:287) 445] 43:1) -95)°294| 47-7 | 41-5) 6°3/10, 10, 10 S by W,8 by W, S. : » 21 | 29°980) 443) 40°6} °88|°270| 46:9 | 44:2) 2°7/10, 7, 2 W, SW, SSW. 0 5, 22 | 29°812) 50°2| 47'9| -93|*347| 526 | 42-2) 10°4/10, 10,10) SSW, SW, SW by S. ‘0 9 28 | 29°842| 47°6| 41°7) °81)°280] 50-2 | 49°3) 0:9/10, 10, 10) SW, SW by W, SW by 8. “ 5) 24 saa seelli poll vers Hove | 40h | BAO LEd are . », 25 | 80-435] 40'4| 89'6| :97/'260] 48:4 | 30:9} 12°5/10, 8, 10 SW ‘by 8, SSW,"S. “0 » 26 | 80'231| 40'6| 34°7| °81|°219| 43:9 | 37-6) 6:3] 0, 2, 1] SSW, SSW, SW by 8. 0 » 27 |30:004! 48'3| 442) -87|-305| 51-5 | 36°3| 15-2110, 7,10] SW by W, W by 8, SW. | 0 » 28 | 29'920| 44'7| 35°3] +72) +224) 47-3 | 41-1] 62] 4,10, 9] Wby 8, W, NW by W. | “0 » 29 |80:424| 85°7| 25°4) -69}-157| 38-1 |35:0| 3-1] 5, 6, 2| NE, Eby N, NE by B. | -0 2 » 30 |30-470| 34°6| 29'4| +83] -181| 38:5 | 22°01 16-5|10, 3, SW, SSW, 8 by W ‘0 Bi 413 |25°6115-7| |... Moby }| 30-184] 36°8| 33°7| -81/-220/ ... |... | 90]... A 0-9 * To obtain the Barometric pressure at the sea-level these numbers must be inereased by ‘037 inch, 2 HOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES) AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON'S ANEMOMETER.—Janvany, 1864. QI Day. }1/2|3)4/5)6)] 7) 8 | 9|10]/11/12|18/14] 15|16|17| 18] 19/20 | 21| 22| 23] 24] 25 | 26] 27| 28 | 29/30/31 re > Hour. / 5 12 | 27/13] 2| 8) 8 5] 1! 2 3| 7 5] 7 3l 6] 4) 11) te] 4! 6] 16] 25] 25] sol 4] 7] 3i isl a9} asl a) 2 9°6 3 ( 1 | 29) 11} 1) 8} 8} 2] a} 2} 2 5] 6 7 3] 5] af of a3l- a} si a4} ov] a3] asi al 7] 6 15\ 20 18} 2) 2) 95 = 2 | 28/15} 2} 9) 7 2 1) 2 7 6 6] 8} 4! 5] J 15] 15] Oo} 7 12] 29] 20\ sal 3l 6] 5] 15\ q9l ayia 1 9°5 > 3 | 26/14) 3] 12} 6] 2} Oo] Oo} 5] 7 5) 7| 5] 9! al 17} 12] 2] 6! 12] 25] o6| a7} 4| 4} al ielielq4l 7 2) 9-7 nS 4 | 31/12) 2} 13) 12] 2) o| 1) 6 6] 711) 3] 6| 9} 17} 14) 2] 5] 13] 26] 271 sel 4) 4) 5l 16l 20l isl 4 2) 105 ) / | 5 | 33) 5] 5] 10} 17] 1) 1) 2] 5] 7 9) 9} 4} 8] 5] 141 13] a] | ial a3] gsi a3l al 5| 7| 151 17] 10 1} 2) 100 3 a4 6 | 30] 8| 9| 8/18} 1| 1 a sl iol 5! si sl sl 7 15 15] 5] - 2} 12) 21) 27] 31! 3] 5) 7] 18] 18] 13] 92] 8) 1o-4 he + | 7 | 99] 6| 8] 11) 17] 2} 1) 1) 4 8] 3] 10\ 5! 6] 12] 16] 14| 6| | a2l 15| a6 27] 4! al 10 17| 15) 15) 3) 6] 10-2 8 | 26; 6| 6] 9) 14) 1) 1] of 5; 6 5/10] 6 1} 8} 14} 9| 5] 6! 19] 12! 29! 21) 5| 3/11/11] 12] 15 6| 6) 91 7 9 | 28] 5/13] 17/10} 1) 1] a} 4 5] 811} 5] 2! 9| 17] 15| 9] 7! 13! 11) 27] 17] 5! 7| 1ol 121 151 10 4] 2] 96 = 10 | 34! 11] 14) 16] 9] 1) 4| 1) 4} 5] 9] si 6| al elas 2| 11) 15} 11} 29) 15] 10} 8] 15) 14] 19] 13] 10] 5! 10-7 38 (11 | 39) 10] 13] 15] 9} 1) 3} 2f 7 7] 5} 9| bl al aol iol 3i 13l 77 8| 27| 13} 11] 6] 24) 16) 21! 11) 14] 98] 11-0 % 12 | 24) 11] 16] 19] 12] 2| 2) 2] 6 8} 9] 6| 6| 7 7 141 10! 3] 181 15] 10| 34] 111 13 6| 7| 18! 28! 13 16] 12) 11°5 s ( 1 | 30) 8| 15] 20] 11) 1) 3] 5} 4 9] 13| 6] 5] 6} 10 14] 10| 5] 14/ 18] 121 32] 121 12] 7| 9 1s| 221 | 4s| 19! 11-9 ‘s 2 | 30] 9) 18] 23] 15] 1/ 4) 4} 6; 6] 11] 4] 6] 6| 11) 17| 8| 2] 16] 15] 101 29! 7| 13| 6| 13] 17| 231 13] 15| ol 11-7 S 3 | 32! 8] 20) 18] 15} 2| 2] 3| 7 7} 9| 6| 7 5! 9| 15} 9] 3l145\ 16! 9] 301 6 qo 4| 13\ 15] 93 14) 11| 8] 11:3 5 4 | 30) 7 21; 16} 7] 2) 3 4) s| si 9| 4] 7 al 10] 191 7 al asi iol of sol 9] el al aii 17 21 8} 10} 5} 10°3 8 |g! 5 | 23] 2) 28/13) 3) 1) 1) 210; 5) 7 3} 3] al a} 13) 3] 1| 14] 29] 11] 24) 11] | 3 si il oil al 6| 4) 94 SI i 6 | 20] 3] 17/18] 7] o| 2| 3/13] 7 9} 3| 5! al 1a} isi 2 3i 16] 2al isi asl al el al gi ql aol 5 3} 5] 94. FS 7 | 19} 3/ 13/17] 6| of 2] 3i ai} 6] 10] 4| 7 2| ol 17| 4! 5/ a7| ool ml asl iel of 4 6| 16] 17; 5] 5] 3] 95 8 8 | 16] 3] 12/14) 5] 1) 1/ 2! 10! 5! 7 al 6 al él io 2| 3} 18] 21] 12] 26] 15] 10/ 5] 3] 18] 12] 5] 5) 4] 8-4 S 9 | 17 3} 10} 20) 3] 1) 2] 3} 9} 6 8} 3| 8} 2} 613i 1! 6| 14| 21| 19l 251 13i 9] 4) 7! oil ql 5 2} 1) 89 S 10 | 18, 4} 7 21] 4) o} 2] 4) 9| 9) 7 3] 6| 2! siiel 4! 5] 16| 25| a3/ 141 | al giao isi isi 4| 4} ai 8-9 S wt 17; 2| 8 14) 2) 2) 1) 4) 6] 6) 7 4) 7 1) 8! 15! 1) 8] 14] 25] 25] 26] 5] 8| gi ieiisi 9 1] 5i 1 87 3 Baal ee Ed ease) hice “fis: = ae a Total Til 629/179)258 349/225) 34) 40} 54/159/161/179|154)125| 99/180/339|201| 80|259/4001390'640/448|174/1151218 38614301247|146/111| 9:9 Ove= ment. LENE TERE A SLEEPER SIL AG EERE _ Ergatom.—In our F ebruary (1864) Number, Q 4 for Total Daily M vement on Oct read 4 5 ins D 4 j 286 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE KEW OBSERVATORY. LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” N., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” w. 1864. Reduced to mean of day. Temperature of Air.| At9'304.m., 2°30 P.m., and 5 P.M. ee | | respectively. - | Caleulated. | | Ox . . aE 3 b Se oo i ~ Le} py |fe |=) /£/ 2/28 |z,| 2] @ ~ fread Bet Ae | a |e le wala | os ai, ehh 2 ae : Mi. Month. B38 $ Sl ae Z r= g 2 | te Direction of Wind. fo lS & le | 2 ree |fel ae | Be or ee fee siay bac = | S| A ae a §)/A|/s] 2 | 8ygs S e 2 a 3 | a | Bc |: ai ‘ada lade alk inches.| ,~ inch.| inche Feb. 30'205| 40'2| 35°5| -85|-225) 45-4 | 25-0 20-41 3, 6,10| 8, WSW,SWbyS. | -000 SW byS ” 30'146) 45°2| 43-1) -93/-294| 50-0 | 36-1/ 13-910, 10,10, SSW, SW, SW by 8. | -O10 + 30°021| 45°8/ 39°4) -80) °259/ 49°0 | 45:2) 3°810,10, 3| WSW, W by S, W by S. | ‘018 ss 30°203| 36:7| 28°5| -75)-176| 41-4 |32°6| 8-8] 0, 5, 2| W, N by W, NW by N. | -O10 N, N by W, NW by N. | -020 2 30°135) 31:4) 28°5| -90) °176, 35°3 | 30-1) 5:2) 4, 8, b 4 ado Ab sas frees ode ees) Seed 810-| 240). 7-0] ,,, 29°731| 31°5| 28'3| “89|-174| 35°5 | 25-1/10-4I10, 6 29:602 30°6 26'1) *85) 161|-36-4 | 21-6) 14°8| 6, 5 ” 10 | 29:443| 30°9| 26'3| 85-162) 381 |17-9}20-2] 9, 1 » 11 | 29'809) 33:0, 29:0) +87/-179) 354 | 22-4 13-010, 10,10, WNW, W, WSW. _ | -000 ” 12 | 29-497) 46°5| 45-4) -96| -319| 521 | 32-0/20:1/10,10,10/ S$, SW by W, WSW. | 31 »» 18 | 29°760| 50°0| 43-7| 81-300, 543 | 41-6|12-7/10, 10, 1| SW, SW-by W, W by S. | -039 oe Meith ou ote 1808 Beahegl? -s: . 4 002 ;, 15 | 29°81) 46:3] 45-1) “96)-315| 50-0 | 41°6| 8:4/10, 10,10] SW by 8, SW by 8, SW. | -000 » 16 |29°753| 43-9) 37-8] -81)-244) 49:9 |44°8] 51/10, 9, 4\SW by W, WNW, W by 8.| -019 ” 17 |30-039| 36°8| 30'2| -79|-187| 43-0 |33-1] 9:9 410,101 ‘NW, NNW: N. ;, 18 | 30-227] 32'6| 269] -82|-166 37°7 |30-2| 7-5 6, 8, 4| N,EbyS,NEbyB. | -ogg > 49 |30°314| 27:8) 251) -90\-155 31°83 | 28-4] 2-9] 9, 7, 9 NE, NE, NE. ; > 90 | 29-965] 26-4| 20°7| -81|-132, 29:6 | 23-6] 6-0] 6,10, 9| NE,NE,NDbyE. | -Ola 5:8 50 ea ae onl ga. | Sw aH 000 9, 22 | 29°868| 29°9| 28°8| -96) 178) 33°7 | 28-7 1 2 3 4 » 5 |30°244) 33:0 2771) -81| -167| 36:8 | 27-0| 9:8] 0, 10, 6 7 8 9 ‘010, 10, 10 NNW, — —. “000 39 23 | 29°930) 31°1| 29°3) +94) -181| 34°4 23°7|10°7/10, 10, 3 NE, NE, NE. ‘000 » 24 | 29°960) 83°7| 26°8) °78) +165) 37:1 | 25°1/ 12:06, 10,10) NE, ENE, NB by E. ‘000 » 25 | 29°967| 346) 29°4) °83) 181 37°7 | 30°8| 6:9/10,10,10) ENE, EB by N, ENE, 124 «96 | 29:942| 35-1) 38:0) 1:00| 222) 37°3 |33-4| 3-9110,10,10| NbyH,—, ENE. | -004 97 | 29°743| 36-3, 36-4] 1-00] 233] 38°7 |34'5| 4°2110,10,10| Eby N, 2B. | -o00 23 | ong | sin'| aeefial nee’ 40'S (860/193. * ie 036 » 29 | 29628) 4i'3) 41°0) “99-274 44:6 385) 6-1/10, 10,10 ‘i, NE, WSW.' | -o2 eit Kaji ll, i AS Means. {| 29°918 36°4) 32°7) *87|*209| ... FE 9°7 eee vee vee 0°72 * To obtain the Barometric pressure at the sea-level these numbers must be increased by *087 inch. — 287 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. HOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES) AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON’S ANEMOMETER.—Fesrvary, 1864. Day. Hour. 12 1 1 | 3 2 3 | 4 e165 Fe 6 a 26 8 9 10 | 14 ll } 16 12 "| 16 1 | 15 2 | 15 : 12 11 le Ga Gerlaqa =| © te Q 18 0/8 11 17 12 Total Daily ( |235 Move- ment. bo WoOnrowonn eo 498,389|217 6| 7 | 81} 9/10/11] 12) 13/14 — on He OONOh MON TATO — pon Oe ob bt wo 340)171 SPwWoIDmDwiiwarOOnwWOOMWCMWOOMOMMOAON BPE BWA ENNOONTEOOKR WEE HWW EW — OTIMDOONNN WD HHH WHE HHOH et HOO 15|16|17|18 | 20 | 21 | 22 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 a pan SOrPNRYNHHEHENN OH OOH EHR OBST OO et et AINAATOTOONDIBHWONPR NBN WHY PE DH 163|107{107|154|4011584|359\377 [347 271/297|480 351\281 57/120|341/374|258) ol > HDNonoonTPLog Be oo a a 09 273/219/126 WWNWEHNEFWODERENWNOAHMAABWHAWMDODD Hourly Means. 105 10°0 101 113 11:0 10°5 108 115 11:9 12:0 139 14:0 145 149 146 13°4 13-7 11:2 gD fel 109 11:7 288 1864, CONTousbwbdre » 29 Meteorological Observations at the Kew Observatory. RESULTS OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE KEW OBSERVATORY. LATITUDE 51° 28’ 6” N., LONGITUDE 0° 18’ 47” w. Reduced to mean of day. Barometer, corrected to Temp. 32°.* Temperature of Air, inches,| , Calculated. Dew Point, 29823) 42°2) 40° 29°788) 36°3, 29°610} 36:3. 37°6| 1-00) ° 29'549] 48:5 449] -88)° 41°9) 1-00)" 29°367| 40°8 29°041| 45:0) 39°0) 81)" 87°4 ‘96 . 31°1) 1:00)" ‘86 ° A 29139] 38:5) 29°119| 31-2 29°681) 36'9 29°55) 44-6, 30°146) 43°3 30-031) 47°8) 29°871) 44:4 30'136) 39°6 30°086} 40°9 29°629) 47°1 | 29°6417| 41:0 29669) 38:9) 29°914) 414 29°967| 41°6 29:5 47) 374, 29-285] 42'8 29352) 389 32°5 37°0 313 40°9 40°7 361 29°6 28'5 38'6 37:0 344; 29'1 32'8 34°0 33°83 312 » 30 | 29°562) 39°8] 849 » ot et Means. (20°71 4de7 29°655] 41:2 411 35'8 Relative Humidity. Tension of Vapour. Temperature of Air. eerie: Sanz b Ee ap elo pe Be |ga/ a] Bg ee a2 | as da (8S) op ces BO a! 8 85 fuslg |= | & sat (Ss Ay a ° ° 492 | 29-6] 19'6|10, 6, 8 8°3/10, 10, 10 9 131/10, 8, 1 162/10, 9, 5 9 19°9| 6, 10, — 18'S) is At 9°30 a.m., 2.30 p.m, and 5 P.u., respectively, Rain read a 10 Direction of Wind. A.M,| : inches SE by E, SSE,SSE. | 11 NE by N,Sby H,N. | -O1 ENE, ENE, ENE. “00 SW by S, 8W, S. “49 Eby N, Eby N,E by N.| -01 wis hele “46 SW by 8S, WSW, WSW. | -04 , NW, NE. 16 N by W. N, N. +24, SW by S, SSW, SW. 34 SW, SW, WSW. 06 WSW, WNW, W. 12 we = -00 WSW, W, W ‘00 SW by W, WSW, N. | -02 NE by N, E, E by 8, ‘05 BSE, SE, BE. 00 B, NE by 5, B. 00 E, ENE, BE. 00 owe dee “00 NH, NE by B, FE. ‘00 NH, NE, NB by N. ‘00 NE, NE, NE. 00 SSH, NW by N, ENE. ‘00 nae eae ‘00 N, N, N by E. 00 9 a rw 04, NW by W, W, W by 8. 00 NNW, N, WNW. | ‘16 SW, NW, W by N. “244 SSW, SW, SW. 03: Pan 2644 | * To obtain the Barometric pressure at the sea-level these numbers must be increased by ‘037 inch, 289 t the Kew Observatory Ons a ical Observati Meteorolog FLOURLY MOVEMENT OF THE WIND (IN MILES) AS RECORDED BY ROBINSON'S ANEMOMETER.—Marcn, 1864. Day. {1/2/3/4/5]6| 7] 8| 9 [10/11/12] 18] 14 | 15 | 16] 17 | 18} 19 | 20] 21 | 22 | 23 | 24) 25 | 26 | 27 | 28] 29 | 30) 31 had Hour. 12 | 3] af 6 6 3i 25! 80| 4) 6| 12] 31] 13] 8] 16] 20] 1) 8| 10; 14) 3) 13) 17] 19 (1 | al 3i gi 4} 3} 25] 28] 4] 98} 11] 24) 17} 8] 17] 25, 0} 8] 8| 8} 6} 11) 14) 18 2 | pl alail 2] a| 25] 22] 6] 11| 10] 21] 15| 6] 16] 25) 0} 10) 8] 6] 4| 14) 14) 16 3 | 6 Bi 142i 2! si a3l ig} 7] 9] 8 20] 12] 7| 22) 25) 1/11) 6} 8 4| 16) 17) 19 4 | gf si asi gf si 17] ail 11] 9] 9] 22) 12] 5] 21] 26) 3] 13} 8| 7 5) 17) 14) 21 {| 5 | 4 a) asl 4} 6] 14] 20] 9| 12] 8} 22) 17) 8] 21] 24) 7] 13) 6) 8) 7 15) 15) 17 346 | gl 5/17 2] 14] 15/18) 5] 9] 7 24) 14) 8] 17} 19] 5] 12) 8| 7 6} 20} 13) 20 4}| 7 | 9g! 9] is 4] 19] 12/ 17] 7 13] 8| 28] 15] 8 18) 20) 4) 11) 8] 11] 6j 20) 10) 21 8 | of 6 ay| 7 14 8] 25! | 14] 8| 29] 18) 11) 21| 25] 2] 14) 14) 11) 8) 19) 15) 23 9 5| 9| a0/ 2 19) 4) 30] 5] 11) 13| 28] 15] 17] 16] 21} 7] 15] 16] 15] 10) 25] 14) 20 LOM IG) 8 5| 17| 10] 28| 51 12] 17} 30] 19) 23] 18] 20] 14) 13] 21] 20) 15) 23) 16) 20 i ie 8 10| 16| 21! 28| 19] 11] 21| 25] 29) 23] 23| 21) 14/ 16] 22] 16) 23) 17] 17| 22 12 | gf 4 14] 15| 24] 32] 19] 12] 28] 35| 20] 23] 21] 19] 26] 27| 21) 15) 25) 24| 18) 22 {1 9| 2114) 11] 15] 30/ 29] 11] 15] 27) 27] 18) 20) 23] 18) 17] 27] 23] 19| 28) 21) 19) 22 2 1140) 2 10| 16! 30| 28! 10] 19| 21! 26] 19) 22] 18] 19] 16] 19] 25) 22| 27] 19) 20) 22 3 | 10] 6 8| 18! 30| 22/ 5! 21| 19] 28| 18] 23] 18] 16] 17] 18] 23) 20) 27] 20) 17| 22 4 | 9) 10 | 91| 30] 15| 9| 24! 15] 29] 13] 22] 17| 11] 19] 23] 22] 21) 26) 19) 19) 20 {5 | 6 10, 13] 9] 25] 21/ 16| 9] 20] 12] 22] 11) 20) 14] 10] 15] 23] 24) 17] 21) 20) 18) 14 346 | 5! gl al 6] 25] 22] 12) 15\"20] 17] 27] 10] 20) 11] 5] 10] 17) 23) 18) 21) 19) 17) 12 | 7 | 5! g| 12] 6| 25] 18] 10] 12] 15] 18] 26] 10) 20] 16] 3) 10} 12] 17| 21) 17| 25) 17| 10 8 | 3] gi 13] 3] 25] 23/ 6] 10| 17| 19) 27] 8) 19] 19} 2} 8} 18] 15) 14) 20) 24) 18) 18 9 | 9] 4 15! 2] 29] 29} 3] 5] 16] 24) 23} 8] 15] 21) 1) 7] 10] 12] 11) 20) 19) 16) 10 10 | 3] 10| 14] ‘41 26] 27/. 3i 8] 12] 26] 18] 9} 18] 22] 4 11] 10] 11] 6) 20) 20) 21) 9 at a} io| si 3] 25] 30/5} 8! 13/ 27/ 14) 9] 15] 20) 2] 10] 9] 15] 5] 14| 21) 20) 4 Total | Move- ment, J ee ee ee on P Daily { |157/152/335|140/389/513/464/196|329|385|606/349 369 446|381)224|352|366 sae 461/396/416| 70| 63|272|293/417/401)190)392} 13-7 290 Star-Following with Table Stands. STAR-FOLLOWING WITH TABLE STANDS. BY REV. E. L, BERTHON, MA. Tue November number of the Inretiucrua, Osserver con- tained a description of a new stand for astronomical telescopes likely to be acceptable to amateurs. The inventor wishes now to publish the sequel to that arrangement, showing a simple way by which the heavenly bodies may be conveniently fol- lowed, either, 1st, by a smgle movement of the one hand, or, 2nd, by a means entirely automatic. By referring to No. xxii. page 283, it will be observed that the movement in altitude is effected by a long screw turned by a little winch; and that in azimuth by a horizontal movement of the whole stand upon rollers. It will be remembered that a slab of smooth slate, which may be had for three or four shilings, was recommended as the flat surface on which this stand should work. ‘The slab should be about thirty inches long and eighteen inches wide, and instead of being fixed it should be made to revolve where required about a pivot. To accomplish the improved work- ing of this stand, two pieces of wood cut this shape 4g are fixed, one at each end of the slab, by means of a © wedge. On the side of one of these pieces—that on the right hand—is placed a little sheave of brass working ona pin. Over this passes a piece of fine whipcord haying a weight of three or four pounds upon it, and the other end made fast to the piece of wood on the other end of the slab. The cord is thus stretched across the slab in a state of tension. We must now recur to the stand. The annexed woodcut represents, in real size, a section of the hinder part of the board or base: @ is part of the long screw inclining up- wards. This screw is prolonged backwards, and between its two bearings b and ¢ it has a well-turned cone of boxwood, and terminates in a square end to receive the winch or handle d. The bearings b and ¢ are prolonged upwards and support another spindle now to be described: it is made square be- tween the bearings, and upon it is a flat wheel or disc of brass having its edge milled like that of a shilling, which is made to slide up and down the square spindle so as to touch the wooden cone at any desired part. On the same spindle behind the aftermost bearing is a brass sheave with several grooves of different diameters, e. ‘There is also one more little sheave f working on a pin, round which and also round one of the grooves of the sheave e, is passed an elastic band to maintain a constant pressure between the cone and disc. Finally the Star-Following with Table Stands. 291 hinder bearing, c, is open like the letter u, so as to allow the spindle and disc to be raised clear of the cone; it is furnished with a little wedge which, when pushed in, lifts it up thus :— Now to use this stand, the disc being kept free q1§ from touching the cone by means of the little ,, (( wedge which is pushed in, the cord is passed | Prey completely round one of the grooves of the “ 7—™™™ sheave e (either over or under according to the We motion of the star to be observed). The stand is moved right or left by hand, and the altitude attained by the long screw. As soon as the star is found the little wedge is drawn back, and the disc is now pressed by the force of the elastic band against the cone, aided also by the weight at the end of the cord, and by the friction thus produced, the disc and cone now move together; thus the two movements in azimuth and altitude are simultaneously produced by turning the winch d; and their relative velocities are adjusted by sliding: the disc to a larger or smaller part of the cone as required. Since there are several grades to the sheave e, and each may be acted upon by any part of the cone, a great variety of relative speeds may be obtained to suit the rising, southing, or setting of the heavenly bodies. The above arrangement is found so simple and easy to work with, that any further degree of independence of manual action is unnecessary for the amateur astronomer on his own account, for with one gentle movement of one hand he can follow a star in any direction; but there are cases in which a complete automatic movement is desirable, as, for instance, in showing the planets to a number of young people one after another. The telescope once set may be kept with the object in the field for a quarter or half an hour by a very inexpensive mover, although hitherto such a luxury has been confined to the possessors of costly equatorial mountings, with equally ex- pensive clockwork to keep them moving. The prime mover to accomplish it is a plain moderator lamp, such as may be bought, without stand, globe, or chimney, for ten shillings. The wick-tube with the smaller rack and pinion is removed, and on the top of the little oil-pipe is soldered a very small gas-jet with stopcock, through which the oil may escape faster or slower as desired. The lamp filled with pure fine colza oil is attached to the slab of slate on the left-hand side and about a foot below it. Another pair of sheaves are now fitted, one to each of the blocks of wood on the slab ; another piece of whipcord is used; one end of it is tied to the rack of the lamp which rises two or three inches when the lamp is wound up ; it then passes over the two sheaves across the slab, and hangs down on the right side with another weight attached. VOL. V.—=-NO. IV. x 292 . Solar Observation. Now to employ this combination. Let the star be found as before, and the velocities m azimuth and altitude relatively adjusted; the cord from the moderator mover is now taken between the finger and thumb and passed round a small pin on the afterpart of the board or base of the stand, or it may pass under a little plate of brass and be nipped by a screw. The lamp now takes charge of the whole affair, and slowly and steadily moves the stand towards the left, thus following the horizontal motion of the star or planet; but as the other jixed cord is passed round the sheave e, this movement cannot take place without turning it, and thus the vertical motion is obtaimed at the same time. - The flow of oil is regulated by the stopcock ; and if a greater force is required than that of the spring in the cylinder of the lamp, a weight of any amount can be placed on the top of the rack. N.B. When the star to be observed is on or near the meridian no movement in altitude is required, so the little wedge is pushed in, and the disc revolving free from the cone, the winch may be transferred to the square above of the upper spindle. SOLAR OBSERVATION.—TRANSITS OF JUPITER’S SATELLITES. BY THE REV. T. W. WHBB, M.A., F.R.A.S. THE most magnificent object of all human contemplation is, beyond a doubt, the great star to whose influence our planetary system has been subordinated by its Creator. Other suns, there is reason to believe, may be superior to it in magnitude, or at least intrinsic splendour, but in a remoteness which even the velocity of light, that reaches us in about ciate minutes from the sun, can only measure by intervals of whole years, their individual features are, and ever must remain, unknown to us. As it was recently remarked in a very interesting paper, with which our readers are familiar, ‘‘ We never see the Stars.” On the other hand, the distance of our own sun is such as to place him within reach of even our smaller instruments, and to bring that enormous flood of light clearly before the spectator’s eye ;* while the magnitude, the variety, and the strangeness of * A power of 180 represents the solar dise under so great an angle that its . entire breadth, if it were comprised in one field, would fill up the whole — sky from the horizon to the zenith. This may appear at first sight almost incredible, but it is matter of easy proof. The sun’s diameter averaging a little more than half a degree, 180 suns, or one sun magnified that number of times, would oceupy a space of upwards of 90°. This may serve to show how fallacious may be the judgment of our sight in the absence of any known object of com- parison. ; Solar Observation. , 293 his phenomena, are such as to invite our most attentive inquiry. To this inquiry peculiar importance has been given of late years by the discovery of an apparent connection between the physical changes in the sun’s surface and the electrical condi- tion of the earth, as shown by magnetic variation; and a field has thus been opened for the most remarkable investigations. Such researches require, indeed, a great amount of perseverance. Jt was not till after twelve years of incessant attention that the celebrated German observer, Schwabe, succeeded in con- vincine’ himself of the existence of that periodicity in the development of spots which seems to stand in such mysterious balance with the electrical state of the earth, and, therefore, in all probability, with the conditions of vegetable and animal existence. His investigations were subsequently continued through nineteen subsequent years, and in all, for thirty years, as the President of the Astronomical Society said, in present- ing to him their gold medal, never did the sun exhibit his dise above the horizon of Dessau without being confronted by Schwabe’s imperturbable telescope, and that appears to have . happened about three hundred days in a year. Nor was that _ other important discovery of the currents by which the spots are so frequently caused to drift from their places achieved by our own observer, Carrington, without a great expenditure of time and patience. On the other hand, the student who is dis- posed to explore this region of mysteries may remember, for his comfort, that his inquiries will be greatly favoured by the number of available hours during which the object is in sight, as contrasted with the short time allowed for nocturnal obser- vations without encroaching on the natural season of rest, and by the additional chances thus given of intervals of clear sky, as well as by the frequent occurrence of very distinct vision through an, amount of haze which would, in the case of less lumin- ous bodies, be an absolute prohibition. ‘his branch, too, of astro- nomical study bears a favourable comparison with some others of the highest interest—for instance, the determination of the periods of binary stars—in the inexpensiveness of the necessary apparatus, and the facility of observation, while a great stimulus to its prosecution may be derived from the opinion of so great an authority as Carrington. Four years of patient investigation have led him to the conclusion that “our knowledge of the sun’s action is but fragmentary, and that the publication of speculations on the nature of his spots would be a very pre- carious venture.” And, in referring to the designs of Schmidt, he says, “he believes that no observer will examine these delineations without finding many characteristic features not satisfactorily explained by any existing theory of the origin and formation of the spots, and without a conviction of the neces- 294. Solar Observation. sity of accumulating other equally excellent series for the future establishment of correct views of this mysterious phenomenon.” Amateurs, again, who have not the opportunity,;-or the inclina- tion to take up the inquiry in a regular and consecutive manner, may yet find it most interesting as an occasional pursuit. No- - thing, assuredly, is more grand than the telescopic aspect of that huge incandescent globe; nothing more marvellous than the dark eulfs which interrupt the continuity of its blaze; no- thing more surprising than their rapid and almost incessant transformation. These are wonders, indeed, with regard to which, as in the instance of comets, the absence of analogy leads us almost to despair of any adequate explanation; yet this does not detract from the curiosity always attendant upon such gigantic displays of ever-active energy; and at the pre- sent time the subject receives an addition of interest from the discussion which has been carried on among some of our first observers, as to the exact form and distribution of certain peculiarities in the luminous surface. For many reasons, there- fore, the subject is one with which amateurs may be desirous of becoming practically acquainted. The study is, however, not to be entered upon without due caution. There is no other branch of astronomy in which any evil result is to be apprehended for a sight of: ordinary strength ; but the sun cannot, of course, be contemplated directly through the telescope without the risk of destruction to the eye; and even a degree of protection which might be deemed adequate by an imexperienced beginner may prove insufficient to prevent bad consequences. It has been stated that want of caution in this respect was the origin of Galileo’s — blindness, and that Sir W. Herschel injured one eye from the — same cause. We cannot therefore begin our remarks more appropriately than by giving our readers some hints which may enable them to regard this ocean of flame with safety and — comfort. Few persons have such an eagle eye as to be able to fix their sight straight upon the noon-day sun; but there is no reason | to think that those who can do so are sufferers from it, though even in this case a lengthened gaze might not be desirable. — But matters are very different as it regards telescopic vision. — In this, there is not only a great concentration of intensity, a — large proportion of the rays collected by the object-glass being poured into the pupil of the eye ; but an enlargement of angle, — by which the mere luminous point representing the sun upon the unaided retina is expanded into a broad glaring disc. The — impression of excessive light alone must be expected to be | prejudicial to an organ not originally adapted for such excite- — ment ; but that of concentrated heat is probably still more — Solar Observation. 295 injurious. The object-glass of a telescope is, in fact, a burn- ing-glass, and though its comparatively long focus, from the enlargement of the image, disqualifies it from producing the most powerful heating effect in proportion to its area, yet its energy in this way is not to be trifled with. A remarkable instance is given by Secchi of the activity of a 95% inch ob- ject-glass in the pure sky of Rome. Without any further concentration of the cone of rays than was due to the field lens of an eye-piece, a piece of the whitest paper exploded in the focus instantaneously like gunpowder, and 3 grammes (= 46°3 grains) of lead were melted in less than two seconds. Various schemes have been devised at different times to obviate the danger from this source. The most natural one, that of contracting the aperture of the telescope to very small dimen- sions, is not so successful as might perhaps have been expected, since, for reasons which involve a knowledge of mathematical optics, the focal image becomes less defined in proportion to the acuteness of the angle at which the intersection of the rays takes place. Herschel I., therefore, in older times, and Dawes in these, not to mention other observers, have pro- nounced in favour of using the largest available aperture; and the latter has remarked that the solar phenomena, “ when carefully scrutinized with large apertures and high powers under suitable atmospheric circumstances, are so wonderfully different in their appearance from those presented by the dimi- nished apertures formerly and necessarily in use, that it would not be very surprising if some observers, unaware of what had previously been seen and described, should imagine that the phenomena revealed by their newly acquired and powerful telescopes were really new discoveries.” ‘The excessive and perilous light and its attendant heat must therefore be all ad- mitted first, and neutralized afterwards, as best we can. ‘This could not be well done by interposing any screen of dark- coloured glass in front of the object-glass, simce it would be difficult to find a sufficiently homogeneous piece of the required diameter, or to work it to plane and parallel surfaces with due correctness.* It has commonly been introduced behind the eye-piece, and close to the eye, in which position its very small dimensions exempt it from the disadvantages which have been mentioned ; but even there it is not pleasant in use, as prevent- ing the eye from coming near enough to command the whole * T have somewhere met witha suggestion, but do not now recollect where, as to the construction of a solar telescope by employing as an object-glass a single lens of deep-coloured glass ; this, transmitting only rays of nearly the same re- frangibility, would be sufficiently achromatic, but the uncompensated spherical aberration would render rather a long focus desirable. The idea is ingenious, and might be worth a trial. 296 Solar Observation. of the field. To avoid this, the late Mr. Lawson, of Bath, who was the possessor of a very fine 7-mch achromatic by Dollond, presented by him, at the close of his life, to the Greenwich Naval School, introduced the screen between the object-glass and the focus, very near the latter, m which posi- tion, however, it frequently was cracked by the heat. This is, indeed, an accident to which these glasses are often lable. The most experienced of solar observers, Schwabe, speaks of it, though in his case the screen was probably placed, as usual, — in the exterior brass cap ; and he remarked that the occurrence took place most commonly in years, such as 1833 and 18438, when few spots were visible. In some measure this might certainly be due to the lower temperature of the spots- them- selves—a curious fact, which has been fully established by Secchi; but should their relative area be considered too small to produce such a result, it would tend at any rate to show that, contrary to the opinion of Sir W. Herschel, their | development was concurrent with diminished energy im the calorific influence of the sun. As we have to deal with heat as well as light, it is by no means immaterial by what means the darkening process is effected. It is generally known that the rays of heat are dis- tinct from those of light, and being less refrangible than the latter, are co-incident for the most part with the red end of the spectrum, extending even considerably beyond its ordinary limits. Glass, therefore, which freely transmits rays of that colour, being equally permeable by the rays of heat, is pecu- hiarly ill adapted for a screen ; its frequent employment in the solar caps of the older telescopes may probably have been owing to the superior readiness with which it could be procured, of sufficient depth, transparency, and uniformity of tint; but its effect was distressing to the eye. Green would be far pre- ferable, as intercepting the heat, but it is difficult to obtain it of a tinge sufficiently powerful to subdue the excessive light. Deep yellow has also been used, but nothing seems preferable to a dark bluish-grey, or neutral tint, which gives a beautiful and comparatively cool image. Combinations of colour have been found very effective. Since white light is composed of what artists call the three primary colours—red, yellow, and — blue, and the two latter form green, it is obvious that a combi- — nation of red and green, provided the tints were carefully — balanced in quality and intensity, would transmit white light, — with very little heat, the calorific rays being intercepted by the — green glass; and such screens are said to be very pleasant. Sir J, Herschel speaks highly of cobalt blue (the colour of | finger-glasses) interposed between two thicknesses of green, — | Solar Observation. 297 and purple and green have been used by others.* From the great convenience of being able to vary its intensity at pleasure, a thin wedge of coloured glass has been recommended, pre- vented from acting as a prism by a similar wedge of plain glass placed in contact with it the reverse way. A plain glass wedge between two tinted ones of red and green, each of half the angle of the colourless one, was used by the Astronomer Royal for the eclipse in 1851. Such combinations must, of course, be made to slide easily across the eye-hole, or be held in the hand during observation. ‘To attam the object of variable intensity, the ancient plan of smoking a piece of glass succeeds as well as far more expensive contrivances ; it 1s also said to intercept heat much more completely than its hue might have led us to expect; probably in consequence of the absorptive power of the carbon; a slip may be nicely graduated as to depth by a little care in smoking, but will require to be pro- tected from accident by another piece of clear glass placed over it, and kept from touching it by interposed bits of paper. © In the preference of tint, however, another consideration must be taken into account, which ought to influence our choice in delicate observations. There is reason to believe that some of the minuter solar details possess a decided colour, which would be acted upon more in proportion than white light, by a screen of such a hue as to neutralize their own. Delicate veils of a ruddy cast, for example, such as have been noticed by Secchi, might be rendered imperceptible by the non-transmission of their light through green glass, or even a combination imto which it entered; while the general clearness of the rest of the image would give no intimation that such a defalcation had taken place; and mstances are on record where the remark- able phenomena of a great solar eclipse have been consi- derably modified from this cause. It would therefore be advisable, when minute features are to be carefully scrutinized, to be prepared with glasses of various tints. A strong reason for caution, however, when ordinary screen- glasses are employed, exists in the fact that different telescopes seem to have different foci for heat. Mr. Reade, in one m- stance, found the burning effect much the strongest a little way short of the solar focus, so that the calorific rays diverged, while those of light emerged parallel from the eye-piece; and hence he recommended an eye-hole, like that of a Gregorian reflector, between the eye-lens and the screen-glass, to inter- cept the heat; by which means he found that an aperture of six inches could be used with safety. On the other hand, a * Tt is a curious fact that this mode of observation with two differently stained glasses was anticipated, before the invention of thé telescope, by Fabricius, in the solar eclipse of 1590. 298 Solar Observation. . case has been given of one eye-piece alone, out of a set, pro- ducing such a focus of vehement heat just at the front of the screen-glass, as partially to fuse its surface in two-minutes with only three inches of aperture. A closer position is said to have saved the glass ; and we must hope, without injury to the eye. Other methods of subduing the heat have been adopted with success. The elder Herschel made use of a filtered mix- ture of ink and water, enclosed between parallel pieces of glass. The late Mr. Cooper, of Markree Castle, Ireland, found that a glass “drum ” containing alum-water was so effectual that he could employ his whole aperture of 13°3 inches,* using merely dark spectacles to subdue the glare; while, on the other hand, during the great eclipse of 1851, Lassell found that the free heat of only 2°55 inches, with a focus of 382°5 inches, broke the dark glasses “ with most alarming rapidity.” To avoid risk of this kind, he used the wise precaution of previously exposing them to artificial heat. An ingenious helioscope, in part suggested by Sir J. Herschel, but improved and actually con- structed by Colonel Porro, in Paris, deserves especial mention. It is a modification of the Newtonian telescope, in which metallic specula are replaced by those of unsilvered glass. The large concave mirror of course transmits all but a very small propor- tion of the incident light; the second reflection takes place at the surface of a small plane mirror, or “ flat,” as it is technically called, which stands at the angle of complete polarization of light ; while a third reflection is produced from another similar mirror connected with the eye-piece; or the latter may be furnished with a ‘ Nicol prism ;” by the rotation of either of which arrangements round the axis of the cone of rays, the light, already reduced to a very minute fraction,}+ may, as those who are acquainted with the mysteries of polarization will readily perceive, be further diminished to any required degree, and the employment of coloured glasses rendered needless, even with considerable apertures. ‘This beautiful device has also the merit of great comparative cheapness, but the disad- vantage of being nearly useless for other than solar observa- tions, and we have no sufficient information as to its accuracy of definition: * This great instrument, twenty-five feet in focal length, was, as far as I know, the largest specimen of the workmanship of the French optician, Cauchoix. Its purchase by the late possessor was the unintentional means of increasing the dimensions of the great achromatic at Poulkowa, as the Czar Nicholas, on pene its magnitude, was determined not to be outdone in a private observatory, an altered his original order for one upon a larger scale. It was employed at Markree re in the formation of an extensive catalogue of stars, and was recently offered for sale in consequence of the proprietor’s death. _ + This and similar values are so differently stated in different places, even by high authorities, that I have not specified them, ‘The question of the amount of light reflected at various angles of incidence seems still open to inquiry. Proceedings of Learned Societies. - 299 We shall postpone to another opportunity our remarks upon other expedients of still greater practical value. TRANSITS OF JUPITER’S SATELLITES. As the opposition of Jupiter takes place on the 12th, the shadows of the satellites will be seen during the month in close proximity to the bodies which cast them, varying, however, of course, in this respect, from perspective, in proportion to the distance of the satellite from its primary, and changing sides at the time of opposition. The transits at convenient hours will be the following :—May Ist. Shadow of I. passes off the disc at Th. 8m., followed by the satellite at 11h. 24m. 4th. Shadow of III. enters at 9h. 3lm., III. itselfat 10h. 832m.; their depar- tures beng at 11h. 40m. and 12h. 15m. respectively. 5th. Shadow of IT. goes off at 10h. 35m.; the satellite at 10h. 54m. 8th. Shadow of I. enters at 10h. 50m.; I. at 10h. 57m.; the departures being at 13h. 2m.and 13h.7m. 12th. I. enters at 10h. 53m., 3s. after its shadow, and leaves at 13h. 9m., 2s. before it. If the planet were precisely in opposition, and also in its node (or passage across the ecliptic), at the time of a transit, the shadow would of course be invisible, being concealed by the body of the satellite. This curious coincidence can but seldom occur, but there will be an approximation to it on the present occasion, as the planet will be in opposition with less than 57’ of N. latitude. PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. BY W. B. TEGETMEIER. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—Warch 23. New Fossits rrom tae Lincura Fracs.—Mr. J. W. Salter described two new genera of Trilobites, and a new genus of sponge recently discovered by Mr. Hicks in the hitherto scanty fauna of the Primor- dial zone. He also remarked that the fauna of the Lingula flags shows an approximation, in some of its genera, to Lower Silurian forms, and some—the Shells and a Cystidean—are of genera com- mon to both formations; but the Crustacea, which are the surest indices of the age of Paleozoic rocks, are entirely of distinct genera; and their evidence quite outweighs that of the other fossils. The Primordial zone is, moreover, in Britain separated from the Caradoc and Llandeilo beds by the whole of the Tremadoc group, which are, at least, 2000 feet thick. April 13. Tue Smiceous Springs in tHe Nevapa Terrirory.—Mr. W. P. Blake communicated a description of the physical features of this 300 Proceedings of Learned Societies. elevated semi-desert region, which is composed of a series of longi- tudinal mountain ranges with alternating valleys and plains. The most abundant rocks are those belonging to the Igneous and Meta- morphic groups; but Carboniferous limestone and Tertiary strata are also found. The siliceous hot springs extend for some considerable distance along a line of fissure in a granitic rock, parallel to the mountain ranges. The water of these springs deposits silica in an amor- phous and also in a granular form, sulphur also being deposited in the interstices of the siliceous deposit. These phenomena are inte- resting as illustrating the mode in which quartz veims are produced in fissures in other rocks, from the older strata to the more recent formations. # Mr. Blake also described the mineral veins of the district there occurring in porphyry. They yield metallic sulphurets, including those of silver, lead, copper, and iron, with a little native silver and gold, the veinstone being a friable quartz. The general direction of these veins is north and south, and the amount of gold yielded by them is more abundant near the surface than at greater depths. Tue Rep Rocx ar Hunsranton.—Mr. Harry Seeley read a paper on the geological characters of this rock, in which its physical strue- ture was first considered, and it was shown to be divisible into three beds, the uppermost of which is of a much lighter colour than the rest, the middle being concretionary in structure, and the lower sandy. These beds, with the overlying white sponge-bed, were con- sidered to belong to one formation, and were termed the Hunstanton Rock ; but the thin band of red chalk some distance above was con- sidered, though of similar colour, to be quite distinct,* as also was the Carstone below. The author considered the lower part of the Carstone to be of the age of the Shanklin Sands ; and as the Chalk is not unconformable to the Hunstanton Rock, he concluded that the latter could not be the Gault, but must be the Upper Greensand, —a conclusion which he afterwards showed was supported by the evidence of the fossils, and the occurrence of phosphate of lime. The seam of soapy clay which separates the Hunstanton Rock from the chalk was supposed to have resulted from the disintegra- tion of a portion of the former, the red colour of which the author endeavoured to show was due to Glauconite, The upper part of the red rock of Speeton was thought to be possibly newer than that of Hunstanton, and perhaps to represent the time which elapsed between the formation of the latter and that of the band of red chalk, LINNEAN SOCIETY.—March 27. On tHe PHENOMENA OF VARIATION AS ILLUSTRATED BY ‘THE Marayan Parriionma®.—Mr. Wallace read a paper on this subject, in which he stated that the study of the Papilionidw of the Malayan Archipelago was likely to illustrate the disputed subject of variation. * An analysis of this remarkable mineral will be found in the INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER, vol. iii., p. 300, Proceedings of Learned Societies. 301 Mr. Wallace considered that variation was by no means the simple fact that it has generally been regarded, but that it included the several phenomena of simple variability, of the existence of the same species in two or more forms, viz., Dimorphism or Polymor- phism. Also, what may be termed local forms, and the considera- tion of sub-species and true species. Simple variability, in which the offspring irregularly and, as it were, accidently differ from their parents, is of the same nature as that so characteristic of domestic animals, Polymorphism or dimorphism differs from simple variability in the fact that the variations are more or less constant or regular. Thus, in the Papilio Memnon the males are always uniform both in form and colour, being bluish black. Some of the females re- semble the males im shape, but are ashy-brown in colour. Others have wings with spoon-shaped tails, and marked with white. Hither of these females will produce males and females of both forms, but it is remarkable that intermediate forms between these two varieties of females never occur. Similar instances of polymorphism among the females occurs in the Papilio pammon and P. ormenus. These phenomena of polymorphism may be illustrated by sup- posing an island inhabited by white men, with black, red, and yellow women, and that, even after many generations, the males born were all white, and the females indifferently red, yellow, and black, irre- spective of the colours of their female parents. In many cases the difference between the polymorphic forms of the same animal is so great that they have been described as belonging to distinct species. The influence of local causes, such as the presence or absence of particular enemies, tends to produce that remarkable variation known by the term Mimetic Analogy. For example, the butter- flies of a group known as the Danaide have a'peculiar scent, which renders them obnoxious to birds of prey, hence they are free from persecution. If, in the course of the accidental variations to which all animals are subject, a Papilio resemble a Danais, even slightly, in form and colour, it will escape persecution more than if it had remained un- changed; and each succeeding generation, those Papilios most like the Danaide will be the most protected and the most likely to in- crease in numbers. This process will, therefore, gradually but cer- tainly produce a constantly increasing likeness or mimetic analogy, until at last one insect can hardly be distinguished from the other except by a close examination of the structural peculiarities. SOCIETY OF ARTS.—April 13. New Moeruop or Preserving Mrat.—Dr. J. Morgan read a paper on a new method of preserving meat. According to this mode, the animals to be killed have an opening made in the chest, through which the heart is reached. Incisions are then made into the arterial and venous sides of this organ, and a stream of water, the force of which is obtained by its flowing from an elevated cis- 302 Proceedings of Learned Societies. tern, is allowed to pass into the arteries, thence through the capil- laries, into the veins, and to escape by means of the orifice in the venous side of the heart ; in this manner the entire blood is washed out of the body, after which a solution of salt and sugar is injected as a preservative liquid. Similar plans were the subjects of patents taken out more than twenty years since, and were not found to suc- ceed in practice. The theoretical objections appear to be, firstly, that by washing the blood out of the capillaries, the nutritive power of the meat is very much lessened; and secondly, that the preserva- tive effect of the plan proposed is very doubtful. The antiseptic effect of salt is in great part owing to its power of abstracting water ; this is not possessed by brine. It was stated that the meat preserved by Dr. Morgan’s process was, when packed in barrels for ship use, headed on with a great amount of dry salt; this weuld have the same effect as the salt used in the ordinary plan of salting, and would slowly abstract the juice of the flesh, and render the meat as dry and innutritious as the ordinary plan. ROYAL INSTITUTION.—April 15. Recent Discovering RESPECTING THE Proprertins OF GUN-COTTON.— Professor Abel delivered a most interesting lecture on the prepara- tion and properties of gun-cotton ; the lecture included a description — of those recently discovered modifications, dependent on mechanical aggregation, which have enabled gun-cotton to be introduced with success in warfare, and for blasting purposes. After detailing the objections to gun-cotton as ordinarily manu- factured, objections which have hitherto precluded its use in actual service, Prof. Abel explained the action of nitric acid on cotton. He showed that it has two distinct modes of operation. If the nitric acid be permitted to act ata high temperature, and in an energetic manner, the carbon and hydrogen of the cotton may be completely oxidized. When, however, the action is moderate, and the temperature kept low, the hydrogen only is assailed, and is re- moved in gradations, peroxide of nitrogen being substituted for it. When two atoms of hydrogen are removed, and two equivalents of peroxide of nitrogen substituted, xyloidine is produced. When three atoms of each are interchanged, trinitro-cellulose, or pure gun-cotton is the result—100 parts of cotton losing 1°85 of hydrogen, and receiving 85°12 of peroxide of nitrogen. Intermediate stages may also be brought about, as in the preparation of that variety of gun-cotton used in the formation of collodion, The original directions of the discoverer, Schonbein, order | the nitric acid employed to be mixed with strong sulphuric acid, but from want of the requisite precautions in the manufacture, the product was uncertain in properties, sometimes even exploding spontaneously. By the precautionary measures adopted in the Austrian army, these uncertainties have been obviated. ‘ The cotton loosely spun into yarn is boiled in a weak solution of alkali, in order to remove more easily oxidized materials, whose pre- sence interferes with the action of the nitricacid. After this washing Proceedings of Learned Societies. 303 the cotton yarn is dried in a centrifugal drying machine, and im- mersed in a mixture of one part of nitric acid (specific gravity 1°5),"and three parts of sulphuric acid. Contrary to the original directions of Schonbein, it is allowed to remain immersed for forty- eight hours, so as to secure uniformity of result. During this action great care is taken to prevent the temperature rising. The cotton is then washed in a stream of water for a period of time vary- ing from one to three weeks, and is subsequently dried in the open air; during this stage of the manufacture, some experiments have been tried as to the effect of steeping it in a solution of soluble silica prepared by dialysis, apparently with satisfactory results. The properties of gun-cotton as prepared by the Austrian process appear to be very uniform and certain. When loosely arranged it inflames at a temperature of about 300° Fahrenheit, burning without smoke, and without leaving any ash. Its rapidity of ignition is so ereat that it does not ignite gunpowder when laid on its surface and exploded. By pressing a thin edge, asthat of a stout card, on the centre of a tuft, one portion may be ignited without the flame communicating to the other. When gun-cotton is twisted into a yarn, its rapidity of combustion is perceptibly diminished ; by vary- ing the degree and tightness of the twist, the exact rate of burn- ing required for different purposes can be secured, from the explosive violence necessary to propel balls from cannon to the slow combustion desirable in a mining fuse. An explosive gun-cotton resolves itself into gases, which are themselves combustible in air, consequently when a flask of gun-cotton is burnt in an open glass vessel, a secon- dary flame is seen, caused by their combustion. Although the combustion of gun-cotton does not depend on atmospheric oxygen, its mode of burning is remarkably affected by the character of the gases in which itis burnt; thus in carbonic acid it burns with a feeble flame; in hydrogen, with one still feebler ; in a receiver exhausted to a vacuum of 3 inches, it burns with a very slow combustion without light. The conditions requisite to the rapid burning of gun-cotton are, that the gases produced by the combustion should communicate sufficient heat to the adjacent portions to carry on the combustion. Hence, in gases like hydrogen and coal-gas, whose conducting power is very great, the heat produced is carried away so rapidly that the cotton almost refuses to burn. By heating a twisted yarn of gun-cotton gently, a very slow combustion may be produced, or the same effect may be caused by blowing a currgnt of air on a yarn in rapid combustion. The ease with which different rates of these combustions may be alternated was very strikingly demonstrated by Prof. Abel, who, after produc- ing the slow rate of burning in a horizontal yarn, caused the com- bustion to become instantaneous by raising it to the perpendicular position, with the inflamed part dependent. Also, after having produced rapid combustion in one end of a long yarn, he changed it into the slow combustion by blowing the flame away from the unconsumed cotton, and back again to the rapid burning by blowing the current in the opposite direction. 304 Notes and Memoranda. NOTES AND MEMORANDA. _ ScunPTvuRE OF THE RertNDEER PERIOD IN CENTRAL FRANCE.—Messrs, Lartet and Christy have laid before the French Academy an account of their discoveries in the grotto of Eyzies, inthe Arrondissement of Sarlat (part of ancient Perigord). They found bones, cinders, wrought flints, and implements of rein- deer horn. They likewise came upon numerous fragments of a hard schistose rock, and on two slabs of the same material were profile engravings giving partial representations of animals. They believe these to be the first examples that have been obtained of this kind of art as practised by the men who were contemporary with the reindeer in France, and other temperate regions of Europe. At Lan- gerie Basse they discovered another manufactory of arms and implements of reindeer horn, some of them ornamented with “‘ elegant sculpture, and of work- manship quite astonishing, when the means of execution possessed by a people who had no metal tools is taken into consideration. At Eyzies they likewise found a bone whistle similar to one from Aurignac. Some of the bone imple- ments from Langerie Basse were not merely engraved, but sculptured in relief. One represented a horse’s head, and in another instance the handle of a weapon was carved into the representation of an entire animal. M. Vibrage adds divers reasons for believing in the antiquity of the human race; and after speaking of the weapon handle just mentioned, states that these early sculptors likewise reproduced the human form in the shape of an: indecent idol, the materials for which seem to have been taken from the elephant.” CoMPANION OF Procyon.—Mr. Bird, whose success in constructing silyered glass telescopes has been described in a former number, states,in the Astronomical ~ Register, that he has succeeded with his 12-inch instrument in resolving one little star in the same low-power field with Procyon into two stars 9.5 and 9.8 magni- tude. Mr. Knott has also seen them with his fine refractor, and estimates their angle of position at about 200°. Common Onicin or Comets IV. anp V. 1863.—M. B. Valz communicates to the French Academy his observations on these two comets. He shows that “their inclinations differ only 4°, and their nodes only 7°. The angle comprised between the planes of their orbits is 9°, and they arrive at the point of approxi- mation of their orbits with equal velocities, and five days’ interval. He remarks that in 1846 the comet of 69 years was seen to separate slowly in two parts, and their inclinations, orbits, nodes, and velocities experienced little alteration. In like manner he thinks comets iv. and v., 1863, may have had a common origin. FarrBarrn on Iron Grrprrs.—The Proceedings of the Royal Society, No. 61, contains a paper by Mr. Fairbairn on iron girders, in which numerous experi- ments are adduced. ‘The conclusions arrived at are that “wrought iron girders of ordinary construction are not safe when submitted to violent disturbances equivalent to one-third of the weight that would break them. They, however, exhibit wonderful tenacity when subjected to the same treatment with one-fourth the load; and assuming, therefore, that an iron girder bridge will bear with this load 12,000,000 changes, it is clear that it would require 328 years, at the rate of 100 changes a day, before its security was affected. It would, however, be dangerous to risk a load of one-third the breaking weight upon bridges of this description, as, according to an experiment cited, the beam broke with 313,000; or a period of eight years, at the same rate as before, would be suf- ficient to break it.’ Mr. Fairbairn considers, however, that the beam had been injured by 3,000,000 previous changes, producing a gradual deterioration. Variations iN Drrrrvetan Ruizorops.—Dr. Wallich has an elaborate paper in the Annals of Natural History, illustrated by very numerous draw- ings, showing varieties of structure in the tests of these creatures. His conclusion is that the “animal does not vary, but it modifies the architecture of its habita- tion, andthe mineral material of which that habitation is in a great measure con- structed, in obedience to local conditions, and in the manner best fitted to meet its requirements.” A “species” of difflugia will, therefore, only be a variety, Notes and. Memoranda. 305 capable of repetition under the very circumstances that determined the peculiarity of its habitation. THE Wittow LEAVES, OF Rick GRAINS, oN THE Sun.—In that useful journal of intercommunication between astronomers, the Astronomical Register for March, is a letter from Mr. Nasmyth, containing his original paper on the willow leaf shaped objects on the sun, the existence of which, except as rarities, has been doubted by some other able observers. Mr. Nasmyth says a telescope of very considerable power and defining capacity is necessary. Mr. Dawes has seen the mottled aspect of the solar surface with a 23-inch glass, and a power of 60. He finds, with a 6 or 8-inch telescope, and high powers, that the surface is chiefly composed of luminous masses of all shapes, imperfectly separated by rows of darker spots. Anything like Mr. Nasmyth’s willow leaves he finds very rare, and only found in the vicinity of large spots in their penumbra. Mr. Nasmyth, in the letter alluded to, says they are scattered over the surface, and lie in all imaginable directions. He says he considers the penumbra to be a true secon- dary stratum of the luminous envelope revealed by the partial removal of the outer and luminous envelope. When a solar spot is mending up, he sees the willow leaves bridging it across. Mr. Dawes sees the spots under such circum- stances bridged over by luminous masses like stray straws from a plat. Since the subject was discussed at the Astronomical Society some weeks ago, the objects in question have been seen at Greenwich with the great equatorial and a smaller instrument, the result being the confirmation of Mr, Nasmyth’s statement, with a slight modification. The mottled appearance of the sun is now affirmed to be produced by a multitude of bodies like rice grains, rather than willow leaves. New AwnzsrTuetics.—Dr. Georges has addressed a note to the French Academy detailing various experiments. He states that purified keresolene, ob- tained from petroleum oil, is a good anesthetic, but requires the aid of heat. Brom-hydric ether he especially recommends as safer than choloroform, not easily inflamed, and haying an exquisite odour. Hzarine or CrustaczA.—M. Hensen has a paper on the anditory organ of the Decopods in the Zeit. fur wiss. Zoologie, xiii., 1863, an account of which will be found in the Archives des Sciences, No. 74. To show that these crea- tures are quick of hearing, he placed prawns, or shrimps, in a vessel of sea water, containing strychnine, which augments the reflex power of nervous centres, A slight noise then caused the animals to bound away. He states that different sounds cause different hairs, which are connected with the auditory cavity, to vibrate. A particular note will make one hair vibrate, while its neighbours remain quiet. Propuction oF OzonE By AcrraTIon or Arr.—M. C. Sainspiecrre informs the French Academy that he has ascertained that ozone is developed by the me~ chanical action of blowing machines and ventilators producing strong currents. This fact may in part account for the healthy action of winds, and should be viewed. in connection with Mr. H. J. Lowe’s paper in our last number. OsTainine Patarrs or Moriusoa.—Mr. T. W. Wonfor obligingly sends the following :—‘‘If you have not heard from any other source of a simpler method of obtaining the palates of mollusca than that mentioned in the Rey. EH. Rowe’s paper, I would call your attention to a plan suggested by Mr. Hennah. I have tried it, and found it very simple and successful. It is to boil the head of the mollusk in liquor potasse in a test tube, by which means all parts, - with the exception of the palate, are destroyed. The palate may now be taken out, washed in distilled water, and mounted. Those who have tried the dissec- tion of minute mollusca will find this a saving of time and patience. It is better to boil the potasse in a hot-water bath.” Serine VENUS As A OrEscentT.—The recorded instances of this planet having been seen as a crescent with the naked eye are very few, and the following extract from Theodore Parker’s journal adds an interesting case to the brief list :—“* When twelve years old I once saw the crescent form of Venus with my naked eye. It amazed me. Nobody else could see it; father was not at home. Nobody knew that the planets exhibit this form. So I hunted after a book on astronomy, and 306 Notes and Memoranda. got it from the schoolmaster, and found out the fact and its reason.” ~ This was at Lexington, U.S. Itis probable that if persons with keen sight would watch their opportunities in exceptionally still and clear states of the air, the crescent of Venus might be more frequently seen. The minuteness of the object may not be so great a difficulty as the ordinary tendency of the atmosphere to blur definition. : Tue 80TH Pranet.—This little object has been named Sappho by its dis- coverer, Mr. Pogson, of the Madras Observatory. A Srrance Streican AccIDENT.—Cosmos quotes from l'Union Médicale a strange story of an accident, resulting in the death of a woman sixty-three years of age, who was under M. Guerin, at the Hépital St. Louis. The patient suffered from luxation of the shoulder of three months’ duration. She was placed under chloroform, and force steadily applied by four assistants, who worked some machinery (/es lacs contra-extenseur, and extensewr), the precise nature of which is not explained. All of a sudden a dull sound was heard, and the poor woman’s arm snapped off at the elbow. On examination it was found that the bones, muscles, and tissues possessed very little cohesion. Furnt IMPLEMENTS FRoM Syrrra.—The Duc de Luynes, accompanied by M. Louis Lartet, has obtained numerous: flint implements, accompanied by the bones of herbivorous animals, from the caverns on the river Lycus, in Syria. Frounpiry 1v Cusa.—M. Ramon de la Sagra communicates to the French Academy illustrations of the enormous families resulting from marriages in Cuba. In Trinidad, with a population of 14,463, ten couples had 13 children, one couple 24, two 21, one 18, one 16, and two 15. In St. Espiritu, with 12,850 population, fifteen marriages resulted in offspring to the extent of from 13 to 26 children, while in Villa-Clara, with 10,511 population, twelve happy pairs had produced 147 young ones. Many Cuban children become mothers at thirteen, and réappear in that character up to the age of fifty. M. de la Sagra compliments the Cuban ladies upon their extreme amiability, and fitness for all the duties of maternity ; but, we fear, inquiry would show that there is very little intelligence among them, and that they lead the lives of well-fed, contented animals. Larvat Rerropvction in Insrcrs.—Siebold and Kélliker’s Zeitschrift, for 1863, relates a curious discovery by Professor N. Wagner of some worm-like insect larvee filled with smaller larvee of the same kind. Except in the remarkable fact that the mothers are themselves only Zarve, these instances resemble the asexual reproduction of the aphides, The larve were obtained from under the bark of elms in Kasan, and appear to belong to some species of diptera. The Archives des Sciences remarks, ‘That amongst the asexual plant-lice the pseudova, or false eggs, are found in an organ which is the homologue of the ovary in the sexual individuals; whilst in the apodal larvee observed by M. Wagner the pseudova are formed in the fatty body. This organ divides {itself into a certain number of lobes, which surround each one with a special membrane.” Ozoxn anp Anrozonn.—The Archives des Sciences for March contains an in- teresting account of the views of Clausius on oxygen. He considers that ordinary oxygen consists in atoms united two and two, and active oxygen in single, or dis- united atoms. The two atoms which constitute a molecule of ordinary oxygen he regards in opposite electric states. Referring to M. Soret’s opinions, M. Clausius observes that they coincide with his own, as his reasoning is not affected by the. supposition that ozone is formed of elementary atoms not united in pairs, which may combine with molecules of non-decomposed oxygen as soon as they become free, bates Sans Ecce ae SHURE A. T, Elwes, Del, Cases of the Caddis Worm. THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER, JUNE, 1864. THH CADDIS-WORM AND ITS HOUSES. BY ELIZABETH MARY SMEE. (With a Coloured Pilate.) Amonest the vast world of animal life which abounds in such : profusion in the rivers and ponds of Great Britain, there are few creatures perhaps which will be found more interesting for observation than those insects which dwell at the bottom of the water whilst they exist m the imperfect or larva state. There are some of them which are doubly curious from their inhabiting houses of their own construction, and in which they may be seen walking about at the bottom of ponds or rivers. At first sight it might seem highly improbable that larvas of any sort of insect should have the faculty of building houses wherein to dwell, but nevertheless it is perfectly true that there are some which have that power given to them, and so well is it employed, that often very beautiful houses are the results of their labour. The larvee which form the subject of this memoir, belong to insects of the same order as the dragon flies, namely, the Neuroptera,* and to the family Phryganeide. They are more commonly known as caddis-worms. The bodies of these so-called caddis-worms are, with the exception of their head, very soft; in fact, exactly resembling ordinary meal-worms. ‘They are possessed of six feet, whose uses, aS will be presently seen, are employed in more ways than that of merely conveying them from one locality to another. They have also very strong jaws or mandibles, and short antennze, or feelers. At the end of the last segment or telum: is situated two little hooks, which are curved or sharply pointed. These little hooks are strong, and are the chief weapons the larvas employ in guarding their houses for their own use, for by them they are enabled to fasten them- * In Westwood’s Introduction they are placed under the order Trichoptera.—Ep, VOL. V.-—NO. VY. pi 308 The Caddis-Worm and its Houses. selves in their houses, and thus resist the attacks of any enemy who may endeavour to pull them forcibly out of their abodes. : These cases or houses, which the caddis so tenaciously guards, are made of different materials, depending upon the locality in which it lives, and also the kind of sub- stances it is able to procure. For instance, if the ‘caddis inhabits still waters, such as ponds where water plants abound, or gently running streams, it will often use the leaves of those plants, and with them most ingeniously make for itself most comfortable and beautiful houses. The leaves are in this case arranged in such a manner that it would seem that not only comfort but also beauty of structure is considered. It is quite a curious sight to see these creatures walking about at the bottom of the water encased in these green portable houses, to which are usually attached a piece of stick or a stone to pre- vent the caddises and their dwellings from rising to the surface. Sometimes half a dozen may be seen at one time, and in each there is a slight difference of construction, according to the taste and convenience of the worms. It should be perhaps here added, that after the house is completed the head and legs of the larva are the only part which is visible, the rest of the body being always kept encased in its domicile. But these green houses are not the only kinds which are found in still waters. Other kinds may be seen which are made of very small stones, almost as fine as sand, and there are others again which are made up entirely of sticks, their length and size varying much, In rapid streams, as cases made from leaves of water plants, and stones, so small as those just mentioned, would be speedily swept away by the current, we find that they are built of more solid and heavier kinds of materials. In such streams, if made of stones, the caddis cases are much larger and heavier. One of the most curious of all the different kinds of houses or cases are those which are entirely made of shells of creatures inhabiting the same stream as the caddis-worms. These cases are frequently found to be constructed of shells of the Planorbis, a small snail, arranged in a most grotesque manner. Frequently the creatures are alive in these shells employed by the caddis in making its house, and then when it walks about it carries the shelled animal, very much to the discomfort of the latter. Such are the most frequent kind of caddis cases which are found in the rivers and ponds of Great Britain. But it by no means follows that the caddises are incapable of making them from other kinds of materials than those found in the water The Caddis-Worm and its Houses. 809 where they live. Indeed, they are able to employ various substances, although their capabilities for building are limited to a certain extent in regard to the material and its form. This was found by myself, from experiments tried with the creatures themselves. Having felt extremely imterested in watching these caddises walking about with their differently constructed houses at the bottom of the water, I felt an intense desire to find out everything about them. It was noticed that when the caddis was turned out of its case and placed im a small vessel of water containing the materials with which it was wished to form another, the larva would construct for itself a new house from those materials, provided they were within the limits of its capabilities. As soon as the caddis-worms find themselves denuded of their houses, they commence forthwith with the materials that may be given to them, and build new ones, never stopping until the greater part of their bodies are encased. Coloured glass, when broken up into small pieces, makes an extremely pretty case. The colours may be either sorted or mixed, for in either way the case is extremely pretty. With broken pieces of glass the caddis builds very rapidly. In fact, 1 generally found that cases made from that material were constructed more quickly than when the worm was sup- pled with other substances. Why this was so I do not know; however, glass is particularly adapted for the caddis to build with. Ifa case of a better sort of material than glass be desired, it will be found that amethyst or cairngorm will answer the purpose well. But although the caddises are able to construct from either of these sorts of stones, yet I used to observe that when given to them the houses were always much slower in their construction. Cornelian, agates, and onyx are all capable of being adapted for cases, and look exceedingly well when finished, especially if used separately. A coral house makes a very ovand- -looking abode for a caddis, but as it is heavy, care should be taken that the pieces be selected from the most slender and thinnest part of a sprig of coral. Pieces of marble broken up into tiny fragments can be successfully employed by the caddis. Shells, mother-of-pearl, when broken into small pieces, or small shells entire, are very quickly made into suitable dwell- ings by caddises. I have had cases made from brass shavings, and also from gold and silver leaf. With the two last- named materials the worms experienced, considerable difficulty, for they are unable to take up portions separately of gold and silver leaf, and they are obliged to roll themselves up in it.in an irregular way. 310 The Caddis-Worm and its Houses. Another material capable of being made into a caddis case is coralline. This substance forms a very curious dwelling. I had some constructed from pieces of a kind of coralline when dead, or rather when only the skeleton remained of it. These pieces of this dead or skeleton coralline are blanched, and are put together in such a manner that the case has an appearance as if it had been the work of a basket maker, instead of that of a larva. But perhaps a more singular-looking case than even these wicker-work ones are those which are made from pieces of tortoiseshell, such as fragments of the teeth of a tortoiseshell ‘comb. If these be given to a worm, it will be seen that it will arrange them crossways. In doing so it will make its House slightly resemble a hedgehog whose bristles are erected. It seems astonishing that there is such a variety of form in the appearances of these different caddis cases. For what can be more unlike each other than cases made from fragments of the teeth of a comb, and that from the pieces of skeleton coralline ? What also is more extraordinary, is, that the same worm which can build the basket-looking case can also construct the one resembling a hedgehog when its bristles are erected. In fact, if a caddis is able to make itself a case from any one of the substances already mentioned, it is able to build from all of them. For I have tried their capabilities in that way by giving a caddis a certain kind of material to construct its house, and as soon as it was completed I turned it out, and then give the same worm something different to work upon. With these new materials it would commence building with as much ease as it did with the former materials, although consisting of a totally different kind of substance from that which it employed in the formation of its previous case. Although these caddises are so wonderful in being capable of forming cases for themselves of such a variety of structure, yet it is not every substance that they are able to employ for building materials. They are incapable of using anything when existing in acertain form. Tor instance, although glass is an easy kind of material for a caddis to work with, yet if the form and surface of that glass be smooth and round, as in a small bead, the caddis will be totally unable to make a case from it. In broken glass the pieces are always somewhat angular, and present no difficulty to the worm. Generally, I may state that not only round beads, but every object which is rounded in form and smooth in surface, is unfit for building material, whilst substances with angles and curves are quite fit for the use of a caddis-worm. ‘There are some substances that exhale certain odours, which render them also quite unfit to be used. These scented materials are so highly noxious to the The OCaddis-Worm and tts Houses. 311 worms, that they often completely stupefy the creatures, and sometimes even cause their death. If pieces of pine wood be placed in a vessel, and if a caddis be kept amongst that wood, in a short time it becomes stupefied, and would ultimately die if suffered to remain. This stupefaction is caused by the turpentine which is contained in such large quantities in all kinds of pie wood. Slate is another substance which caddis-worms are unable to employ for their building. I attribute this to a similar cause as that which prevents caddis from using pine wood, namely, the odour. In these cases, however, the substance does not cause any injury to the worms. ‘The same obstacles arise with both coal and brick. Although there are many kind of metals that can be em- ployed by caddis-worms, yet there are some from which they are quite unable to construct their houses, such, for instance, as lead and copper. I have myself repeatedly endeavoured to get a caddis to use these metals just named, but it was always in vain ; although worms would try again and again to build from them, they invariably failed. It will always be found that if any caddis is not able to construct itself a house from any kind of substance which might be given to it, no other caddis could form a house from the same material. Any number of caddises may be tried for that purpose, yet the results are always the same. It has before been stated that the weight of caddis cases depends upon the locality that is inhabited by the worms, for it is found that the more rapid the streams, the heavier are the cases. When a caddis is turned out of its house, the whole surface of its body is covered with air-bubbles. Now, if these crea- tures are placed under these circumstances in running water, they speedily rise to the surface and float, until at last they die from exhaustion in their struggles to regain the bottom of the water. This being then the use of the cases to the caddises, let us now see the manner in which they construct them. It is, indeed, an interesting sight to watch them during the progress of their building. The worms commence by placing together a number of pieces of the substances they wish to employ. These are then cemented loosely together, so as to make a foundation for building its subsequent structure. ‘These first pieces that are used as a foundation are always cast off before the completion of the edifice. The cement used by the caddis in fastening the pieces of its house together, is a secretion which proceeds from its mouth. With it the different pieces are fixed together in the most perfect manner. This cement 312 The Caddis-Worm and its Houses. answers the same purpose to the caddis-worm as the mortar: which is used by the bricklayer in the construction of his build- ings. After the foundation has been formed, the caddis pro- ceeds by lifting up with its feet a piece of the material it is employing forits building. This is turned on every side, either in order to discover whether the piece will or will not suit, or else to find out which is the side that will best fit into the space required for it. If the piece is found to answer all the pur- poses required by the caddis, it is cemented into the space reserved for it by this secretion, which as I have stated before, proceeds from its mouth. If, however, the piece does not suit the space, that piece is instantly rejected, and another one is taken up by the worm in the same manner as the previous one was. Sometimes the caddis is obliged to take up several pieces before it is able to meet with one fit for the purpose. ‘This makes the task of building extremely tedious and laborious. Indeed, with the creature’s slender legs it seems marvellous that itis able to take up the different pieces with them, par- ticularly when heavy ones are selected, which is the case when the worms inhabit rough waters. For in those localities the materials are principally large stones, or else thick heavy bits of wood, which must render the building extremely laborious. ‘The building is continued by the caddis in the manner just described without stopping, until it has sueceeded in rearing a house according to its taste. When it is com- pletely finished, the whole body of the worm is encased in it, with the exception only of its head and lees, and these even are capable of being drawn into its building, either for its pleasure or for their protection at the appearance of danger. ~ The caddises are exceedingly fond of the houses which they take so much pains to build, and it is often very trou- blesome to deprive them of their habitations. They fasten themselves into the end of their houses by the means of those two little hooks which have already been alluded to, and by the aid of which they are enabled to bid defiance to any enemy who might try to denude them of their abodes, When the caddis is once hooked into its case it will often suffer itself to be torn into two rather than allow itself to be dragged out. The obstinate resistance on the part of these caddis- worms often offers some difficulty when it is wished that they should build another case. But it will be found that caddises will creep out of their cases, if slightly irritated by gently pushing a pin into the end of their case. By this method both case and worm will escape damage and injury. Now caddises are able to make more than one case for themselves when former ones are destroyed. When I tried The Caddis-Worm: and. its. Houses. ols some experiments with them, I found that five was about the greatest: number I ever obtamed from one caddis. The last one was not nearly so strongly or firmly cemented together as the first one. After the fifth one was made, the caddis, when turned out of it, would invariably bury itself under the heap of the materials given to it without even trying to make another case. It seems that the secretion used for cementig the parts together was entirely used up and failed to be further produced. But although five was found to be the greatest number obtained from one caddis, yet it should be stated that if the worms were captured as soon as they were hatched, and experiments tried with them, I believe they would be able to make more than that number. Frequently they did not suc- ceed in making so many as five cases. I have seen the small caddises, just hatched, building their tmy houses as early as the beginning of January; of course bemg then very little creatures, the materials they are only, able to employ must be of the smallest description, like sand, etc., for with larger or heavier materials they would not have the strength to take the particles up with their then tiny feet. As they grow so they must enlarge their houses, always build- ing until the creatures cease to grow larger; but in what way they expand the circumference of their dwelling I have not been able at present to observe. The time taken for a caddis to construct a case varies very much, With some substances a caddis takes more than double the amount of time and labour that it does with others, for with some materials they finish their work in about twenty-four hours, with others again it takes more than a week to doit. It has been already stated, that cases made from broken pieces of glass, jet, shells, or marble, were very much quicker in their construction than when the worms were supplied with either amethyst, or cairngorm, or coral. A shorter time is always taken in the early part of the season, for as the period approaches for the larvas to turn into the pupa state, they require a much longer time to build. If it be wished to keep caddis-worms for the purpose of watching these creatures constructing their cases, it will be found to be advisable to let each worm have a separate place to work in. They are so extremely quarrelsome to- wards each other, that if you denude several worms of their houses, and place them together in a vessel of water containing materials for them, you will find that instead of beginning to build they will commence a most deadly warfare with each other, their animosity never being appeased until some one stronger than the rest succeeds in killing them off. After this the survivor will commence his house as if nothing had 314 The Caddis-Worm and its Houses. happened. The best way is to let each caddis have a small jar of river water for itself, and which should contain the sub- stance it is wished its house should be built of. The water should be changed daily, so as to let the caddis have always a fresh supply of oxygen, and also to keep the materials bright and clean which it employs. When the period arrives for these larvas to become pupas they gradually lose their activity, until at last they withdraw their head and legs entirely into their cases, and remain in a completely dormant state for a short time until their last trans- formation, when they burst open their cases, and rise to the surface of the water in their new and glorious forms of perfect fies. They dry their wings and skim along the surface of the water, their instinct leading them to perform their new career as if they had been accustomed to that state of existence all their lives. The period in which the transformation from larvas into flies takes place does not always fall at the same time at different parts of the country. In the south of England it generally occurs about the middle of May. . The colour of the flyis brown. It is possessed of four wings, which are equally long, and very much resemble net- work. Whilst at rest the wings are placed longitudinally. It has also long antennze. The flies always keep near the water. Their great enemies in all states of their existence are trout, with other fish, who devour them freely; the trout even eat cases and all of the caddis; although they greatly prefer them without the stones and sticks which cover the bodies, as then they consider them exceedingly dainty morsels, and in that condition they are thus found a killing bait by the angler. But caddis-worms are equally as rapacious as the trout themselves. They have really a tremendous appetite, taking into consideration their size. I have observed that if this was not satisfied they were never sufficiently nourished to be able to undergo their final transformation, but would die whilst existing in the pupa state. When I kept these creatures I used to feed them on pieces of uncooked meat, which they would eagerly seize from my fingers, and ravenously devour. It used to surprise me to see how much such small animals could manage to get through atameal. They will also eat a common house-fly, the wings, legs, and head being alone rejected as unfit. But meat, if that be cooked, no caddis will offer to touch, however hungry he may be. It is only whilst the caddises are in the larva state that they are so carnivorous. When living in the streams their food consists of the numerous creatures that exist there, as insects, polyps, mollusks, and. The Caddis-Worm and its Houses. sl they have even the reputation of eating the ova of trout. But after taking into consideration the leathery case and the roundnéss and smoothness of the ova, and the difficulties which they must present to the caddises, I am inclined to doubt the assertion that they cause in any way their injury. I have placed the ova of trout in the same vessel with caddises, but never knew one to be eaten, and even have known a caddis to incorporate ova into its case. But with the other-named creatures I myself have been an eye-witness of their rapacity. Indeed, as far as the mollusks are concerned, caddis-worms seem to consider them an extremely delicate food, judging from the amount of them they consume when they can get the opportunity to do so. I will here give a little anecdote to prove this, and also to show im what manner I discovered their rapacity in that way. I had some fresh-water mussels, belonging to the family Mytilacee, and called the Dreissena polymorpha. They were given to me rather as curiosities, and which I kept in an aquarium, containing, amongst other things, caddis-worms. After a short time I found to my mortification a great number of my mussels were dead, as I at first thought, although I was surprised that I never found any trace of the dead crea- tures, their shells being always open and clean. ‘This state of things went on for a few days, my shells, or rather their in- habitants, vanishing in a most mysterious and unaccountable manner ; until one day I saw a caddis walk deliberately up to one of the mussels, whose respiratory orifices were protruded from the partly open shell of the mussel, which was enjoying itself in the nice bright water of my aquarium, not dreaming that there was any danger so near to it. Well, as soon as the caddis had reached close to the mussel, it seized hold of the siphoned orifices, which are the respiratory orifices of the mussel, and then devoured the poor creature up. Beginning with the part that it first attacked, and continuing its havoc until the shell, or rather the two shells (for mussels are possessed of two shells), were completely emptied. Other caddises were also discovered demolishing others of the same kind of mussel, after a similar manner as that just described. The mussels which are mentioned here are natives’ of northern and eastern parts of Europe. They were first dis- covered in England in 1824, in the Commercial Docks, and have been supposed to have been brought to England amongst some timber. They have been carried to the River Lea, and in- creased plentifully in the reservoirs and even in the water- pipes of the New River Company in the Green Lanes. By their fertility they have become almost a nuisance, and I may confidently suggest to the New River Company the importation 316 The Caddis-Worm and its Houses. of caddis-worms: into their reservoirs as a means for their extermination. i“ Now afterall that has been stated on the variety of struc- tures of caddis‘cases, it should be borne in mind that however great may seemingly appear to be the difference between the different cases, such as between the wicker-work house of the caddis and that which was made from the teeth of a tortoise- shell comb, yet the general design of those houses is iden- tically the same. For instance, if they be compared together it will be seen that all the cases are made of the same shape, namely, in that of a tube, and that the same smooth surface is found to exist in the interior of those houses. The only difference between them consists in the manner in which the pieces of the material are arranged, and not in the design of the whole. The design upon which the case is made is derived from instinct, which is implanted into the organization of the creature by nature, which leads them to construct cases of such a uniformity of plan as was said in an analogous case by Gilbert White, in his Natural History of Selborne, that “The God of Nature is their secret guide.’ As soon as the creature is hatched it commences building a house without experience and without knowledge, and without even requiring to be taught, and which is as perfect in its structure as if it had the most extended experience and the most correct know- ledge, and the same plan will also be observed in all instances. Instinct then does not proceed from the operations of the mind, but is something which is implanted into the nature of the creatures as a part of their organization, and which causes them to act upon that idea that has been implanted. With respect, however, to the choice of each stone, the caddis is guided by a particular adaptation of each piece for its purpose, and to that extent acts as well as man could do under similar circumstances. Whilst the design of the case is clearly instinctive, as much reason is shown in the choice of materials as man could exercise under the same conditions. In these pages I have endeavoured to point out simply the principal features of that wonderful instinct which is possessed by the larveo of that order of insects commonly known as caddis-worms. The facts which I have mentioned were all ascertained by trying’ experiments with them. Jor, as T have said at the commencement of this paper, the ex- periments were carried on solely from an intense desire to know what were the capabilities of these curious. creatures. But I feel convinced that more can be learnt of them, and ib is in the hope that others may be incited to the same object that this account has been written, which contains that which I myself have learnt through my own observations made upon The Caddis-Worm and its Houses. SLY. creatures obtained from the streams in our garden at Waiimg- ton. That it was attended with great amusement I need hardly add. Should any one wish to discover more about them, let them try experiments themselves with these creatures. In the month of April they will find in the rivers the caddis- worms in a most active state, each busily employed in building their differently-formed cases. Dzsorrprion or Prats.—Fie. 1. Case of a caddis, found in the river where the current is slow. It is built of small stones, attached to a long strip of wood, which balances the weight of the stones. Fig. 2. Case of a caddis found im rough waters. This is much heavier than the former. Fig. 3. Case of a caddis when the larva was turned: out of its former one, and was supplied with the teeth of a tortoiseshell comb. Fig. 4. Case as taken out of the river where the stream is moderate. It is formed of the shells of planorbises and. shells. Fig. 5. Case made of jet. It should be added the same larva made five cases from this same material. Fig. 6. Case made of the filings of brass. Fig. 7. Case made of sprigs of red and white coral, and will be seen to be a heavy one. Fig. 8. Case made from broken pieces of different-coloured glass. Fig. 9. Case as existing in the river, it consists of small stones and strips of wood, one of which is much longer than the other. Fig. 10. Case of caddis made of silver leaf. Fig. 11. Case of caddis when the larva was supplied with pieces of coralline. It will be seen that the pieces are put together in such a manner that the case bears a great resemblance to basket- work. Fig. 12. Case made when a caddis was supplied with pieces of amethyst. Fig. 13. Caddis case constructed of pieces of cairngorm. Fie. 14. Case made of willow shavings. Fig. 15. Case of a caddis from a gently running stream; it consists of small stones attached to two long sticks. Fig. 16. Case made when the caddis was supplied with red coral. It will be seen that it closely resembles the one which is made of the red and white coral. Fig. 17. Case made of broken pieces of green glass. Fig. 18. Case formed of cornelian. Fig. 19. Case made of broken pieces of shells. Fig. 20. Case from the river, which consists of small stones with one stick attached. Fig. 21. Case of caddis-worm as taken from the river. There is a cherry stone attached to one side of the case. Fig. 22. Case of caddis made of small stones, to which is attached a long strip of wood. 318 Kew Observatory. KEW OBSERVATORY. jy Ir is not always necessary to go to a distance in order to meet with something new, and. there are institutions in the midst of us which, from the nature of their work, are comparatively un- known. Those of our readers who have rambled over the Kew Gardens, or have pleasing recollections of a sail up the Thames on a sultry summer’s evening, may perchance have observed, towards Richmond, a building which stands alone in the old Deer Park. Perhaps, also, their curiosity has been aroused by three obelisks, one to the north, and two to the south of the said building, which form a constant source of speculation to the inhabitants of the neighbourhood. These are meridian marks for astronomical instruments, and the building to which they belong was originally the private observatory of George II. Here he spent many of his leisure hours in regarding the heavenly bodies and in other scientific pursuits, while even to this very day reminiscences of the old king linger about the place. The observatory is built on a mound, which raises it somewhat above the level of the park, and is surrounded on all sides by vaults, as an additional precaution against the entrance of moisture from the river. It is not now devoted to astronomy, but the Queen having granted it for the use of the British Association, it is employed by that body for purposes connected with physical science. Although called the Kew Observatory, the propriety of this appeilation is somewhat questionable, since it is really nearer Richmond than Kew; but we all know that it is not easy to change a name, A committee of the association, men of eminence in science, form the board of directors, and have the power to appoint a superintendent and staff of assistants, who by a wise arrangement are guided rather than trammelled by the super- vision of the Board. The past history of this institution under the British Asso- ciation is indelibly associated with the names of Ronald and Welsh. ‘The former of these, well known as an electrician, was one of the first to suggest the idea of an electric telegraph. He had also, for a considerable time, instruments of his own construction in operation at Kew observatory for the purpose of ascertaining the electricity of the air, and this branch of knowledge is much indebted to his inquiries. It is perhaps, however, in his employment of photography for the purpose of recording meteorological phenomena, that he has been of the most signal service to science. Here he was Kew Observatory. 319 one of the first in the field, and if his processes have since been improved by Brooke, Welsh, and others, he has at least the credit of first poimting out the capabilities of this wonderful agent. His original barograph is even now in use at the Kew observatory, a similar instrument is in operation at Oxford, and another will shortly be elected at St. Petersburg. Mr. Ronald was succeeded in his office by Mr. John Welsh, whose untimely death has been much regretted, but who, not- withstanding his short career, left a name well known among magneticians aud meteorologists. He was the pioneer in those scientific balloon ascents, which have since been pursued in so indefatigable a manner by Mr. Glaisher, and from the very complete arrangements which he was the means of introducing at Kew for testing barometers and thermometers, as well as from his improvements in magnetical instruments, his name is deservedly known, and his judgment highly respected. But we must now hasten to inform our readers of what goes on at present at the observatory, and even to him whose motto is cut bono we hope to demonstrate the use of the institution. We have already stated that the Kew observatory is phy- sical rather than astronomical, and we may now add that the branches of science to which the labours of the staff have been hitherto most devoted are meteorology, magnetism, and heliography, and these have received an amount of attention which could not easily have been bestowed upon them by any private individual. Tio begin with meteorology. It was only when the great practical importance of this science first began to be perceived, that accuracy in the construction of barometers and thermometers was at length regarded as absolutely essen- tial to the progress of our knowledge. It is difficult for any one living in these latter days of accurate inquiry, who has, perhaps, only handled the delicate ‘and exquisite instruments which are now constructed by opti- cians, to realize the inaccuracy and slovenliness with which the indispensable barometer and thermometer were constructed not a great many years since. We have all heard with a smile of Sir W. Armstrong’s village hostess, who was afraid her weather glass was not exactly right, for all the quicksilver had run out of it; but we can hardly believe that twenty years ago many opticians who, perhaps, esteemed the presence of mercury essential to the barometer, yet took little pains to measure accurately the length of column of that fluid. We should also like to know how many observers in those dark days ascer- tained the temperature of their mercury. Then again with thermometers. Was the atmospheric pressure always noted when the boiling point of an instrument was marked off by the optician, or could either optician or 320 Kew Observatory. observer give a satisfactory definition of that pomt? Was either aware of the gradual change which takes place in a thermometer by age; or in graduating an instrument, was any allowance made for the unequal diameter of the bore at different parts of the same tube? These and other questions might well be asked; nor do we err in stating that errors in baro- meters of that period might often be reckoned by tenths of an inch, errors of thermometers by degrees. But day was now beginning to dawn, the public were gradually becoming aware of the practical importance of meteorology ; the laws of storms (for even storms have: laws) were more observed, and while Admiral Fitzroy applied himself to the task of foretellmg weather, the Kew committee set themselves to that of improving instruments; for in the peace- fal as well as in the warlike arts, one man furbishes the weapon which another man wields.: It was at this stage that the committee were fortunate in securing the valuable co-operation of the late Mr. Welsh as superintendent of the observatory. One of their first acts was to recommend a pattern for barometers to be used at sea, and instruments after their model have since been very exten- sively employed by Admiral Fitzroy in the department under his control. Another important point was to obtain at Kew the means of readily determining the errors of meteorological instruments, pre- vious to which it was essential to construct an accurate standard barometer, to which all others might be referred. Let not our readers imagine that this was an easy task, for in order to avoid the influence of capillarity, it was necessary that the internal bore of the tube to be filled with mercury should be at least one inch in diameter. This, after much preliminary difficulty, Mr. Welsh accomplished, by a method which obviated the trouble of boiling the mercury in the tube—in all cases a dif- ficult operation, but»with a tube of such a bore nearly im- possible. Having procured their standard of reference, something more was, however, wanting before barometers could be properly tested ; no doubt, by suspending instruments in the same room with the standard, the errors of these might be obtained, but only for the existing atmospheric pressure, whatever that might happen to be at the time of comparison. But for marine barometers, with no cistern adjustment, it was essential to know the error at various points, and clearly it would not do to wait for a storm in order to compare together instruments at a low pressure, or for exceptionably fine weather, in order to compare them when the pressure was high. Evidently the only plan was to obtain the means of pro- Kew Observatory. O21 curing at will an artificial atmosphere, which was accomplished by the successful construction of a receiver, with plate-glass windows, into which an additional inch of air might be intro- duced, or from which three inches might be abstracted. The comparison might thus be made between 31 and 27 inches, a range which comprehends all weathers. In the next place, with regard to thermometers, the com- mittee undertook to supply all Fellows of the Royal. Society, and members of the British Association who chose to incur the necessary expenditure, with standards of their own con- struction, and such were likewise supphed to the leading opti- clans, becoming in their hands, as it were, the parents of a host of accurate thermometers. Nor did the labours of the committee end here, for besides thus indirectly supplying the public with a better description of imstrument, great facilities were afforded for the verification of all thermometers which might be sent to Kew. By way of variety, let us here give a short sketch ofthe method employed in constructing a standard thermometer. Our readers are well aware that in every such instrument there are two points which must be accurately determined before graduation, the first of these being the melting point of ice, and the second the boiling poimt of water. Let snow or pounded ice be put into a wooden box, and left for some time in.a room, the temperature of which is about 32°, and further let the water which forms be allowed to drain off through a few small holes in the bottom of the box. Now introduce your thermometer tube, which had better be an old one, into the mixture, and when. it has remained there for some time, make a mark on the tube at the termination of the mercury. ‘This point must denote 32° if you intend making a Fahrenheit thermometer. But-if the melting point of ice be constant, not so the boiling point of water. Were the pressure of the air to fall.to 29 inches, water would boil at 2103°; were it to rise to 304 inches, the same fluid would ‘boil at 213°. The barometer must, therefore, be consulted when the upper point of the tube is marked off, and not only must the bulb, but also. the whole column of the instrument up to the termination of the mercury be immersed during the operation in boiling water, or what is better still in the steam which escapes from it into the air. When you have thus obtained your two points, say 32° and 212° of the capillary bore of :your tube be ‘constant throughout, you have only to divide the distance between these into 180 equal parts. But if the bore, as is always the case, be not uniform, you must make your degree longer when it is narrow, and shorter where it is wide; you, therefore, 322 Kew Observatory. require to know the relative diameter of the bore at all the different parts of the tube. In order to obtain this informa- tion, a small portion of mercury, sufficient to occupy about half an inch of the bore, is detached from the main body of the fluid in the bulb by a mechanical process, and is made to travel down the tube from the bottom to the top, its length being accurately measured at every stage. Of course where the bore is wide the length of this detached column will be small, and where the bore is narrow, its length will be great. By this method the diameter of the bore is ascertained through- out, and the instrument graduated accordingly. The result of the labours of the Kew committee was soon apparent. The slovenliness with which meteorological iistru- ments had hitherto been constructed gave place to accuracy, and such are now produced by many opticians with hardly any perceptible error. But here let me impress upon all those who desire perfection not to remain content with the general repu- tation of the optician whom they employ, but to have their instruments verified at Kew, and a table of corrections pro- cured from that establishment. By doing so, not only is the instrument itself rendered practically equal to a standard, but the optician is kept wp to the mark by the knowledge that his work is scrutinized. It is now time to notice shortly the various scientific processes which are conducted at the obser- vatory. That meteorological observations are regularly made at Kew, our readers are well aware ; and here we may likewise mention the fact that Robinson’s anemometer has been im- proved by Bukly, the mechanic of the observatory, into an instrument which records continuously the direction .and velocity of the wind, and which is now extensively adopted. But perhaps the most important processes are those connected with photography. Light plays a very prominent part at Kew. By means of this agent, the changes which take place in the magnetism of our globe, as well as those which take place in the electricity, and the pressure of the atmosphere, are continu- ously recorded, and, besides all this, the sun is made to take his own likeness. We cannot here enter into details of construction, let us rather inform our readers what such instruments have already achieved, and what more they may be expected to accomplish. Of the self-recording instruments at Kew the magnetographs are perhaps the most important, and the records of these in the hands of General Sabine have already led to very interesting results, Our readers may be surprised to learn that nothing in nature is more inconstant than the magnetic needle; not only has it a motion depending upon the hour of the day, but it has likewise a change from season to season, and from year to year, Kew Observatory. 323 Tt is influenced by sun and moon, but above all it is subject to sudden and abrupt fluctuations called disturbances, which are invariably accompanied by auroral displays, and by electric currents, which affect our telegraphic wires. The laws which regulate all these motions are best discovered by means of self- recording instruments, and besides investigating these, General Sabine has traced from the records at Kew, and elsewhere, a curious bond of connection between sun spots and magnetic disturbances, two phenomena very unlike each other, but which, nevertheless, have their epochs together. With regard to the nature of this singular connection we are yet in the dark, but we think the Kewrecords have thrown some light upon that other bond which links together magnetic disturbances, earth currents and aurora. Men of science abroad are now much alive to the importance of such instruments, and magnetographs similar to those at Kew are already in operation at Lisbon, and will shorily be so in America and Java, in Coimbra, St. Petersburg, and Florence. In illustration of the value of these when all are at work together, we may state that by comparing the Lisbon records with those at Kew, it has already been found that magnetic disturbances break out at precisely the same moment of time in both those places. We shall now shortly allude to the barograph, another of the self-recording instruments at Kew. By it the changes in the barometer are continuously recorded. Similar instruments are in operation at Oxford and Greenwich, and by means of these it has been found that during sudden squalls the crisis of a storm takes place at Oxford about 50 minutes sooner than at Kew, and at Kew somewhat sooner than at Greenwich. When such instruments are more widely spread, a great in- crease in our knowledge of storms may surely be expected. The Kew photoheliograph is already familiar to most of us as the instrument by means of which Mr. Warren Delarue succeeded in obtaining photographs of the sun during the total eclipse which took place in Spain on July 18, 1860, and by which he proved the connection with our luminary of those mysterious red protuberances which are visible on such oécasions.. The in- strument has sce been mounted at Kew under the superin- tendence of this distinguished astronomer, and much curious information with regard to sun spots may be anticipated. In addition to all this work, monthly observations of the magnetic needle are made in a small building detached from the observatory, soas to be beyond the influence of iron, and scientific men proceeding abroad, with the view of observing the needle at various places, have an opportunity of getting their instruments tested at Kew, and of their receiving instruction in the science of magnetism. By this means we are not only VOL. V.—NO. V. Z ood Lhe Harth as seen from the Moon. brought nearer day by day to that great scientific consummation, a theory of terrestial magnetism, but the practical- importance of knowing accurately the behaviour of the needle at the different parts of our globe is patent to every one. The Kew committee have hkewise lately imtroduced an arrangement by means of which sextants, quadrants, and other geographical instruments may be verified, but we for- bear to enter further into this interesting subject at present. While we have thus imperfectly described the chief pro- cesses at Kew we have not even yet exhausted the work of the observatory. As it 1s an institution for the determina- tion of various points in physical science, new problems of importance are taken up as they present themselves. We have elsewhere noted the fact that Mr. Gassiot’s magnificent spectroscope is at Kew, and we shall now conclude by ex- pressing our belief that it will not be allowed to remain idle during the fine summer weather which we hope is near. THE EARTH AS SEEN FROM THE MOON. M. Cami Fiammarton gives the following account of the appearance the earth must present to the inhabitants of the moon :— “The inhabitants of the moon perceive in their sky a gigantic star, constantly immoveable at the same height. To their eyes this globe is twelve times as large as the sun, but it differs from all the stars in being always suspended in the same place over their heads. It presents phases to them as the moon does to us, passing through all the gradations of new and full earth. ‘This star, as we have just said, is the earth that we inhabit. : “ Those who dwell in the centre of the lunar disc behold our globe suspended from their zenith hovering eternally im the midst of the starry skies. Others see it at 70 degrees of elevation, others at 45 degrees, as they inhabit spots more or less removed from the centre of the visible hemisphere. Those who live near the borders of this hemisphere see our globe on their horizon resting on the mountains. A little further on only half the earth is discernible, and in passing to another hemisphere the view vanishes for ever. “Tf we except the determination of longitudes, the earth is more beautiful and more useful to the moon than the moon is to the earth, and if the Selenites* rolling beneath us inter- pret the law of final causes with as much partiality as we do, * Selenites, from selene (Z¢A4v7n), the moon, inhabitants of that orb. The Harth as seen from the Moon. 329 they will have a right apparently superior to our own for re- garding creation, the earth included, as especially made for the Selenian race. — “ The earth is a gigantic globe, sending them thirteen times more light than the full moon transmits to us. It revolves on its axis in twenty-four hours, and during this period exhibits all portions of its surface, being thus more generous than the moon, which always conceals one hemisphere from our view. In consequence of this motion, the Selenite finds himself in an observatory magnificently situated for viewing the terrestrial disc, and his position is preferable to that of the inhabitants of the first four moons of Saturn, who can never see the whole of that planet, and they can see the earth better than we see any planet. “The earth generally presents to them a greenish hue, in consequence of the immense quantity of water by which its» surface is covered, of the forests of the new world, and of its plains, and also on account of the tint of its atmosphere. From time to time, however, large grey or yellow spots divide the sphere. To the east of the terrestrial disc appear the lofty Cordilleras, marked by a long indented line, just as we see in the lunar Carpathians to the west of the Sea of Storms. Opposite this ridge, a shady green spot of great extent unfolds itself for many hours—this is the great ocean. Next come two grey patches, which look like one, elongated; these are the two isles of New Zealand. Then appears the fine con- tinent of Australia, tinted with a thousand colours, and accom- panied by New Guinea, Borneo, Java, and the Philippines. At the same time the grey country of Asia is unrolled, and extends to the white steppes of the pole. Africa then comes in view, divided by its milky way of sand. ‘To the north of the great Sahara, appears a little green spot torn in all directions, and full of ramifications—this is the Mediterranean ; above which those who have good eyesight will discern little, and almost invisible, France. Then the dry land will disappear, and the great dark spot of the Atlantic will follow the same re- volving course. ‘The Selenites who carelessly contemplate in tranquil nights the green and grey divisions of the earth, will have no idea of the contests in which the distant nationalities are involved. ; “The earth is a permanent clock to the inhabitants of the moon, and this is not its least utility. By reason of its in- variable movements the fixed points which mark the different longitudes will be the hours on the meridian of the moon. Hach country of the globe has its peculiar aspect, and may serve for a point of departure..... “The phases the earth presents to the moon will, in the 326 The Earth as seen from the Moon. same manner, serve as an almanack, and we may believe they form its chief foundation. These phases are complementary to those which the moon presents to us: when it is full moon for us, it is new earth for the Selenites ; and when they give us a new moon, we offer them a full earth. No reciprocity can be more perfect and constant. “But the phases of the earth differ essentially from those of the moon, inasmuch as their intensity, not their magnitude, changes perpetually. This phenomenon is very terrestrial, and we may be sure the Selenites have judged us by it long ago. Whilst with them all is calm, identical, constant, with us everything changes. Besides the different lustre of dif- ferent parts of the terrestrial sphere, green continents, blue seas, yellow deserts, white poles, and grey lands, our atmo- sphere is in perpetual commotion. One day it is covered with clouds, and transmits to the moon a uniform white light, the slay after it is of limpid transparency, and allows the solar ight to fall upon absorbent green surfaces. All of a sudden it will be varied with flocculent mountains, and varied mosaics. Thus the light the Selenites receive from the earth, the light which we call ‘ ashy,’ and which we only perceive in the moon’s early days, varies continually in intensity. “This mobility, this perpetual variation in the aspect o the earth, will have made the Nelenites believe that the earth is uninhabited. But on what grounds would they form opinions unfavourable to its habitability ? hey live on a solid and stable sphere, and can see nothing like it on the earth. Can any rational creature live upon that permanent atmospheric layer which covers all the earth ? A Selenite who fell into it would be drowned, Can it be on that sheet of green that washes the greater portion of the earth? Can it be on those clouds that appear and disappear a hundred times a day? And then the earth turns with such velocity; it is subject to so much ele- mental instability! Moreover, can we believe that its in- habitants are people without weight, preserving, no one knows how, a mean position between the fixed and mobile elements ? How can such existences be believed ?” Having thus sketched out the probable effect of the earth upon the Selenites who see it rolling over them, M. Flam- marion considers the position of those who live on that lunar hemisphere which we never see, and which never sees us. He distinguishes the Selenites as Subvolvians and Privolvians,* and points out the totally different kind of beings that may inhabit * These not very judicious names designate the inhabitants of the two lunar hemispheres, one seeing our globe over their heads, and the other not seeing us at all. In reality it is not a whole hemisphere ; but #ths of the moon that is per- manently hid from us, ’ : The Harth as seen from the Moon. 327 the two hemispheres, if, as is possible, the one we do not see, possesses water andair. After some other remarks he observes, that the astronomy of the Selenites must appear so compli- cated as to require the greatest penetration for its true ex- planation. “They behold themselves motionless in the centre of. the universe, they see the sun perform its circuit in 294 days, and the stars in 273 days. Those who see the earth will perceive that although it appears almost immoveable in the same part of space, 1b goes round the sky in 29 days. They would ascribe these movements to the sky and to the earth. As for thinking that they moved, and that this earth was the centre of their movements, and that the sun was the centre of those of the earth and planets; this is a notion to which it would be extremely difficult for them to attain. Celestial appearances are not so complicated as seen from any star as from the satellites.” “« Less favoured than the Subvolvian Selenites, who in their transition from day to night pass only from an intense to a feeble light, the Privolvians have a complete night of fifteen days. It follows from experiments of Bouguer, M. Lambert, and even from the theory of Robert Smith, that the mean relation of solar to lunar light is as 300,000 to 1; the mean relation between sun light and. full earth light for the Selenites would be as 23,000 to 1. Those who inhabit the opposite hemisphere will have no illumination during their night. But perhaps under their unknown atmosphere they light up arti- ficial suns for half the year; perhaps nature furnishes them with a special illumination, like the Auroras that illuminate our polar regions; perhaps their eyes are constructed for nocturnal life ; perhaps they sleep like marmots during their dark winter of half a month. ‘These are all may bes; but we cannot doubt that nature has established the Selenites com- fortably in their homes ; and if one of them came here for the winter he would be astonished with the enormous terrestrial globe that gives us a profusion of day and night, and, like a great child, makes us play at hide and seek all our lives.”—Cosmos. 328 Recent Microscopie Literature. RECENT MICROSCOPIC LITERATURE.* In the last annual address of the President of the Microscopi- eal Society of London, Mr. Brooke stated, “that no foreign microscope that was exhibited (at the International Exhibition) was at all comparable, either in the convenience of its mechani- cal or the perfection of its optical arrangements, with the instru- ments of our best makers.”” This has been the case pretty uniformly since the application of the achromatic principle to the construction of the microscope ; but it is only recently that our opticians have successfully competed with the French in the useful task of giving a serviceable, though second or third-rate instrument, at alow price. At present, it would appear that if optical and mechanical excellence, both carried to the highest degree of perfection, be sought for, they will be found in the workshops of our own great makers; while no foreign artist whose productions we have seen appears to give so much for a little money as can be obtained in the educational and student’s microscopes of Smith and Beck, Pillischer, Baker, Parkes, and many others whose names are familiar to all who have paid attention to this branch of manufacturing industry and scien- tific skill. Almost the only feature in foreign instruments which Mr, Brooke commends to the attention of English makers is the correction of certain objectives for immersion in water, a form of construction in which M. Hartnack, who exhibited in the French Department, excels. Mr. Brooke thus remarks upon these glasses:—‘‘ A plate of water should_-intervene between the objective and the covering-glass of the object. From the increased facility of transmission of the oblique rays through a plate of water, the quantity of light under , any given condition of illumination is obviously increased.” He adds, “ With a jth objective of moderate angular aper- ture, which is corrected for immersion in water, I have, L think, in some instances obtained better definition than by any other means.” From these remarks it will be seen that the film of water makes a small angled glass work like a larger one, and although there may be some rare occasions in which the plan deserves a preference, it cannot be 80 gene-: rally useful or advisable as that which our opticians have so successfully carried out. Mr. Brooke expresses himself strorgly, as Dr. Carpenter did long ago, on the question of angular aperture, which, he * L’Etudiant Micrographe. Par Arthur Chevallier. Paris: Delahaye. On Preparing and Mounting Microscopic Objects, By Thomas Davies. Hard- wicke. Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. No. xiv. Churchill. Recent Microscopie Interature. 329 affirms, cannot be pushed to extremes without sacrifice of penetration. We believe Mr. Lister has worked out this sub- ject more completely than any one else, and we think we are right in saying that, omitting mere surface markings of the most troublesome diatoms, rules could be laid down showing the most advantageous proportions in which angular aperture and focal distance should stand to each other to ensure the greatest accuracy of definition. This subject is of great prac- tical importance, and we regret that Mr. Brooke’s anniversary address was not more explicit in dealing with it. The best mode of obtaining great amplification depends in no small degree upon the angle of aperture question. Sup- pose, for example, a power of 1500 or 3000 linear is required for the exhibition of minute structure. How isit best obtained ? Mr. Brooke gives a preference to lengthening the body of the instrument, over the employment of very deep eye-pieces; but upon the subject of deep objectives his statements do not coincide. In his notes on the microscopes of the Exhibition, he tells us that “no objective yet manufactured for sale at all rivals in its power of development the 3th of Messrs. Powell and Lealand,” and in the presidential address we find the con- tradictory assertion that he “has not hitherto succeeded in developing any point of organic structure with Powell’s 3th that is not equally visible with jth by Ross.” If +th of Ross and th of Poweli.and Lealand were selected as of equal merit in workmanship, it would still be found that they differed con- siderably in the proportion which their angles of aperture bore to their focallengths ; and itis difficult to believe that the two proportions are equally advantageous. Messrs. Powell and Lealand’s exquisite th is much more limited in its range of utility than their 4th, because the latter will work through thick covering glass, while the former requires it to be so extremely thin as scar cely to bear a touch. Messrs. Smith and Beck’s zth, which has a moderate angle of aperture, is as generally applicable as a 3th or a 3th; and this constitutes no small proportion of its merit. ‘Mr. Ross’ S ;th, as stated in his catalogue, has an angular aperture of 170°. Working angles of aperture are nearly always much less than. those calculated by opticians; but suppose Mr. Ross made a zth of the same working angle, or less than that of his 4th, it does not seem possible that when used to obtain the same amplification, they should both be equally advantageous in point of penetration. We have tried and admired Ross’s jth, and that of Powell and Lealand; but when it is desired to see the interior structure and movements of small objects, such as desmids or infusoria, it cannot be a matter of indifference whether a given magni- fication is obtained by a deep objective of moderate angle, 330 Recent Microscopic Interature. without the draw-tube, and with a first eye-piece, or with a lower objective of actually larger angle, with a deeper eye- piece, or with a few inches of draw-tube. We have heard an experienced microscopist speak as Mr. Brooke does in one of his conflicting remarks, that he couid see all with his 4th that he could see with his = Fic. 10.—BReEEDING TROUGHS FOR HATCHING EGGS OF CRUSTACEA, etc. (From a sketch taken at the College de France, Paris.) A. Cistern. a. a. a. Glass troughs, containing gravel: the water flows constantly from one to the other in a gentle stream. B. Large trough for salmon, etc. We are so convinced that to be generally useful, scientific books must be interesting, that we have given particular pro- minence to that element in Dr. Phipson’s labours, and we are glad to be able to recommend it strongly on that account. We do not, however, wish to convey the impression that, because it is popular, it is not scientific. This is certainly not the case; but the work belongs to the department of Recreational Science, because it relates exclusively to matters that, although not generally known, are interesting and easily understood. VOL. V.— NO. ¥. BB 356 The Functions of Art. THE FUNCTIONS OF ART. We do not intend to criticise any: individual pictures in the Royal Academy Exhibition or elsewhere. ‘The number of pieces that will receive popular praise or blame will depend chiefly upon the expectations the visitors to the various” galleries form concerning the functions of art. If they ask the painter only for clever finger work, they may soon fill up a large laudatory list; but if they demand clever brain work also, they will strike the pen of condemnation through the majority of the names of pieces which they were compelled to praise upon mere technical grounds. ) In reading the works of our best modern historians, the graphic power of reproducing and idealizing characters and events gives a charm and value to their pages that we seldom find when we turn from paper to canvas, and expect the pencil to rival or transcend what the pen has accomplished to make us realize the past. If the historian puts together his sentences with technical skill, if his periods are flowing, his grammar unexceptionable, and his meaning plain, we esteem him little, unless he rouses our emotions, excites our sympathies, and gives us some insight into that eternal linking ~ of cause and effect, without which life would be a disjointed and purposeless drama, and the incidents of human story mere rags and tatters of a many-chequered scene. No cleverness of composition makes us merciful to the writer who fails in those higher purposes which composition ought to serve; and why should the man who speaks to us through the mechanism of oils, pigments, and canvas, obtain laudation upon easier terms ? If he undertakes to bring before our eyes scenes connected with the assertion of political liberty, or with the insurrection of mind against the conventional forms of dead systems, we ought, before praising his picture, to ask whether, after studying it, we know more of the subject than we did before his labours were exposed to our view, and whether the meaning of the event is more distinctly felt and seen. His anatomy may be unexceptionable, bones and muscles may be in their places ; his figures may be well arranged, and their drapery of shape and hue that is pleasing to the gaze; but still, he has failed as an artist, unless the soul and sentiment of the subject glows through every lineament, and gives a moral and intellectual reality to all his work. What is the use of telling an heroic story so as to excite nobody to heroic thoughts or deeds ? Passing from the historic to the domestic, what do the silks and satins, the muslins and the crinolines matter, and what are they worth on canvas more than so much linen- —— : | F The Functions of Art. 307 drapery stock, unless the picture in which they glisten sug- gests a thought worth haying, or an emotion that makes life truer and more beautiful than it was before. Interiors of cottages, village schools, and scenes of amphibious existence on the sea-shore, ought to be something more than works of imitation, tinged with the personal egotism of their manu- facturers, before they are entitled to demand our praise. Is there nothing in the peasant life of England but gnarled or chubby faces, fat bacon and hunks of bread? Is there nothing in the interior of our cottage homes—miserable dens though too many of them be—but carrots and crockery, a deal table and a mug of beer? ‘Those who paint peasant life as made up of these beggarly elements, had better leave it alone. You may see the grain of the wood floor, count the knots in the table, feel disposed to pick up the potato peelings, and be a profound believer in the patches on the clothes; but if the painter has seen nothing to idealize, if he excites no sensation of human worth, if his men, women, and children have nothing in them but simple animal characteristics, tinged with want, or degradation, no merit in his brown pitchers or clouted shoes should induce any one to fancy that he has produced a work of art. Cottage scenes are common enough in our exhibitions ; but how few painters perceive the pathetic or the nobler sides of humble life. And yet we know that where the common-place mind can see only its own miserable reflection, there may be enough heroic devotion for a Thermopyle—enough strength and tenderness for a whole calendar of saints. We want in art the mind of a poet-thinker, turning every- thing it touches to living gold; and after an exhibition has been gone through, and the physical fatigue of the process is over, he alone should be dignified by the name of an artist who has taught us how to see, or how to feel, or how to think, more truthfully and more beautifully than before. Take aspiration away from art, and it becomes so much dead lumber. If it leaves, its votaries with just so much indifference to bad things, and no more love of good things than they previously possessed, it has failed of its purpose ; it is like an instrument from which no music can be evoked,—a bell that will not ring, a book that proves to be nothing but leather and wood. » Very often indeed the painter comes forward as the ex- pounder of our great writers, and many works receive high praise upon the merely technical ground that the art-spelling is done properly, when no art-words are put together by which the verse of the poet becomes a stronger and more exquisite reality in our minds. If reading the poem gives us a better picture, the painter has been of no use. We are entitled to ask him to do more for us than our own imagination could easily 398 The Functions of Art. body forth. Failing in this, however clever he may have been with his fingers, we do not thank him for his brains. The artist goes forth at all seasons of the year into the country, and in due course elaborates his landscapes. Here again, after demanding technical correctness, we are entitled to ask for something more. If his canvas looks lke the place, and that is all, his human intellect and heart have done little more for us than the photographer’s chemicals and lens. Ifwe go to the spot he depicts with no finer associations than we should have had without him; if he has given us small help in seeing, and none in the loftier process of linking together the beautiful and the true; what ought we to care for his work, although its precision might serve to guide the carrier to the right roadside inn, or suggest to maternal solicitude a convenient situation for sea-bathing when the children’s holidays arrive. There is a class of landscape very common in our gatleries, and yielding ample profits to its producers. We mean that in which some harsh and discordant effect of blazing light and colour is repeated with certain changes over and over again, and year after year. In another case a man carries his own eternal tameness to every scene—his waterfalls are composed of the same soapsuds, his trees have the same mild stems, and the same pale green leaves; his rocks are smooth enough for the drawing- room table when the cover is off, and his skies simper with one unvaried smile. He is no helper to see or think, not an artist, however deftly his brush may glide. Certain other men have discovered an “effect”? that will sell, and they produce their effect year after year, just as the crockery maker gives us the everlasting willow plate. In many instances, a certain crotchety egotism and mannerism always comes uppermost. It is evident that artists of this stamp do not look nature honestly in the face. They project one side of themselves upon all they behold. They are not interpreters of nature, nor can be until they have exorcised the demon of self. Doubtless we have good artists, as well as good brushmen ; but tried by their appeal to men’s higher faculties, not one picture in a hundred that fetches a high price, and secures the laudation of the common herd of critics, really deserves the name of a work of art. We believe our artists will give more when the public demands more. It is therefore we would stimulate the public demand. le Neighbourhood of the Lunar Spot, Mare Crisium. 359 NEIGHBOURHOOD OF THE LUNAR SPOT, MARE CRISIUM, JUPITER’S SATELLITES. OCCULTATIONS. BY THE REV. T. W. WEBB, M.A., F.R.A.S. Our somewhat lengthened examination of the interior of the Mare Crisiwm did not admit of our extending our survey beyond its immediate boundaries. Its vicinity contains, however, some interesting features. The surrounding elevated land is broken up in many places by eruptive force, and some of the craters deserve a passing notice. Condorcet (see the diagram in our April number) is a considerable crater, 45 miles in diameter, with a very regular interior, but an exterior quite the reverse, as is frequently the case where such formations occur im moun- tainous regions. It is about 8900 feet in depth. Azout is a similar but smaller crater, 16 miles in diameter; its interior has only 2° of grey light. Four ridges of some height, and . nearly equal in length, run from its wall to the “ sea,’ includ- ing between them three sloping bowl-shaped valleys.. Water- courses, if they were possible upon the moon, might be looked for in such localities, which are not of frequent occurrence. This is the remark of Beer and Madler, to whom the reader will understand that he is indebted, throughout these papers, for all statements not expressly referred to other authorities. I regret that in this, as in numberless other instances, I can add no corresponding observation of my own; and that with regard to the greater part of the lunar surface I am unqualified to act as guide, excepting upon the information of others. Firmicus, more than 38 miles broad, and nearly 5000 feet deep, is connected with Azout by a mountain ridge. Like the preceding craters it is of a uniform dark “steel grey,’ which, under a high illumination, though of the same intensity of light with the Mare Crisiwm, is different in colour, from the intermixture in the latter case of green. Apollonius, 380 miles in diameter, is nearly S. of Hirmicus, and is the furthest in that direction of this crater group. The summit of its S.H. wall is 5400 feet above the interior. To the W. of this object we come to a more level country, remarkable under high lights for a set of broad, crooked, and branching streaks of dark grey, somewhat resembling, ac- cording to B, and M.’s remark, the Saima lakes in Finland. They seem under such circumstances to lie in a perfect plain. Near the terminator, however, they are perceived to be valleys divided by banks of moderate height, and associated with 360 Neighbourhood of the Iunar Spot, Mare Crisium. craters. The aspect of the district is then so changed, that its correct identification as to details requires actual measure- ment. These great discrepancies, they observe, might easily lead to the idea of casual atmospheric obscurations or other changes; but continuous and persevering observation shows that they are all periodical, and so entirely dependent upon the angle of incident light, that an ephemeris of these phenomena might be constructed to serve for every lunation. Vegetation has been suggested, according to B. and M., by several astro- nomers, as the cause of these appearances; if so, it would require to be of a nature to run its course m a single lunation. In favour of this idea it might be alleged that many valleys of a precisely similar character are to be met with, especially nearer the Poles, that show no such grey tint, but preserve their bright aspect under high illumination.* All this, how- ever, is little to be depended upon; and it must be admitted that vegetation, in the absence of air and water, is to us incom- prehensible. It had already occurred to Schréter that the moon, from the very slight inclination of its equator to its orbit, could possess scarcely any change of seasons; and that therefore the functions dependent with us upon summer and winter, might there be discharged by its lengthened day and night ; so that vegetation might be concerned in the change of colour for which some spots are remarkable as contrasted with others, in proportion to the increased angle of the sun’s rays. Gruithuisen, as might have been expected from him, pushed the matter much further. He distinguished the grey spots into three classes, each, as he fancied, characterised by a “flora” of its own. 1.—Small levels of a very dark hue, which undergo no change, and may possibly be covered with forests of conifers! 2.—Numberless dark spots which acquire a deeper tone under the advancing light, among which he classes the Paludes Amare of Hevel, the very region we are now discussing. 38.—The grey plains, which gradually grow darker after sunrise, probably from the dispersion of a low mist. And besides these he noticed traces of another kind of lunar flora, requiring great attention to be perceived, reaching as far as 25° of N. latitude, and gradually creeping up the valleys among the mountains as the sun attains its greatest height. From all this he concludes that there is a lunar vegetation comprised between 65° N. and 55°S. latitude, most luxuriant near the equator, and preserving an analogy between increasing relative height and latitude similar to that which obtains on the earth, Our readers could not be much won- * Tt escaped B. and M, that near the Poles the sun’s altitude would never be sufficient to admit of a fair comparison. i - Oe Neighbourhood of the Lunar Spot, Mare Crisium. 361 dered at if they were to consider this “ all moonshine,” nor would a closer acquaintance with the author increase their con- fidence in his judgment. But he had a very fine eye, and there may be hints here not to be despised. As to the general question of vegetation, no doubt a flora like our own could not exist under such very adverse conditions. But this would furnish no argument against the possibility of one adapted to its peculiar situation, and we must not omit to mention that one of our first authorities on this point, De la Rue, is inclined to favour such an idea from the circumstance that in the course of his photographic investigations he has found that parts of the moon, equal in apparent brightness, are by no means equal in actinic energy. ‘This indicates the presence, in certain situations, of rays not otherwise manifested, which are inca- pable of producing a photographic effect—such a result as might naturally be expected if those portions of the surface were clothed with vegetation. I have been repeatedly struck with the very singular aspect of this region under a high illumination, in its uncommon con- tour and sharply-defined intermixture of light and darkness ;. and I venture to think that a very careful study of it might probably be in some way ultimately rewarded. We have not, as far as | am aware, a single representation made on an ade- quate scale, and with sufficient accuracy, of the appearance of this district in the full moon, and the attempted delineation of B. and M. is scarcely so successful as the rough but charac- teristic draught given by old Hevelius, of what he calls his “ Paludes Amare.” This is in fact not surprismg. The object of Beer and Midler, as of Lohrmann before them, having been the delineation of the elevations and depressions of the surface, any adequate representation of those varied tones of grey and white, to which the term “local colour” may be conveniently though not very correctly applied, and which are so strangely unconformable with the actual relief, would have been a simple impossibility. Hitherto the attention of selenographers has been, naturally enough, much more directed to the very intel- ligible relief than to the intricate and perplexing shadowing of the surface; and hence we do not as yet possess either special topographical delineations, or a general map of the full moon, at all corresponding with the present requirements of science.* A general chart would demand a great expenditure of time and labour, especially if the gradations of light are accurately repre- sented, without which it would be of little service ; but careful drawings of separate spots might be very advantageously un- * Russell’s, fifteen inches in diameter, published about 1797, is the best that I have seen, but it is rather a spirited sketch than a faithful likeness, 362 Neighbourhood of the Innar Spot, Mare Crisiwm. dertaken by amateurs, and would be easily executed with a little skill in outline and shading: their comparison with views of the same objects in the relief of light and shade would be instructive, and they might in process of time acquire con- siderable importance as records of the present state of a surface, whose markings may perhaps be found not exempt from change. ~ But to return to the Paludes Amare, or Neper a** and its neigh- bourhood, as this region is styled by B. and M.: grey tracts of a similar character, but perfectly unconnected with these, and less extensive, are to be found at no great distance to the W. of the craters Hansen and Alhazen of B. and M. (see the dia- gram of the Mare Crisiwm); another of these streaks lies between the Alhazen of Schréter and Himmart; and B. and M. describe several less easily seen in the extreme foreshortening of the limb. The region between the S. end of the Mare Crisium and the equatorial limb of the moon, comprising the craters Neper and Schubert, has been very unsatisfactorily laid down by B. and M. The result of Mr. Birt’s revision of their work will in due time, we trust, be made public: in the mean while, as the requisite correction involves a still larger district lymg on the other side of the equator, we shall postpone our notice of it till it comes before us in the Fourth Quadrant. There is nothing of especial interest to the W. of the Mare Crisium. To the N. and NW. we meet with an elevated region, as extensive as Germany, so entirely filled with craters and ring-plains that the intervening mountain ridges are reduced to a position of very inferior importance, and appear to serve principally as means of communication, so to speak, between the more conspicuous features. Several of these latter we shall describe in detail. Oleomedes (No. 1 in the Index Map) is a fair specimen of the formation which has been at different times styled a Walled, Bulwark, or Ring Plain. This peculiar configuration of the surface differs from the crater chiefly in the level character of its interior, which is frequently little, if at all, depressed be- neath the surrounding neighbourhood. It appears to be the type towards which the larger and older craters approximate ; but it is difficult to obtain a clear or satisfactory idea of the mode of its original construction, or the stages through which it may have passed. We shall find, however, hereafter still more characteristic and better situated specimens than the one now before us. Cleomedes is about seventy-ecight miles in dia- meter, and of a rounded quadrangular form ; less dark than the Mare Urisium, and not everywhere of a uniform tint. | Schréter has noticed that it is deepest beneath the KH. wall, a peculiarity _® This letter in the map has more resemblance to a “d.”’ Neighbourhood of the Lunar Spot, Mare Crisitum. 863 exhibiting itself, he says, in several other similar great plains, especially Grimaldi. The wall is very broad, and falls on each side in terraces—a mode of formation frequently recurring in lunar rings, and worthy of careful attention : it reaches a height on the W. side of about 8700 feet above the interior, rising on the H. side nearly 1000 feet higher, and, dividing in its course, encloses on the NH. a steep depression named T'ralles, lying no less than 13,700 feet beneath its H. boundary. Several of the neighbouring smaller craters are also, as Schréter has remarked in this and numerous other instances, deeper than the principal cavity with which they appear to be connected. Tt is a fact especially worthy of attention, that, as this observer has. pointed out, when one crater has encroached upon the boundary of another, so as to be obviously of subsequent date, the more recent is almost universally the smaller, as well as the deeper, either absolutely, or at least in proportion to its diameter. The area of Cleomedes contains several small objects. Schréter at first saw three, a low hill in the centre between two loftier objects, of which that to the S. might possibly be a crater, all reflecting an ordinary light of about 4° of intensity. Subsequently, under an angle almost precisely similar, he found the N. spot changed from a longish ridge to a crater of considerable size, and a brilliancy of not less than 7 or 8’, approaching that of Aristarchus, the brightest spot on the moon. In another lunation the ordinary-looking hill and its shadow reappeared. On another occasion he saw in this place both the ridge and two craters, the smaller of which had 6 of light, close to it; and subsequently he found the larger crater grey instead of white, and a black shadow in both of them, especially the smaller one, though 6’ 40” to 7’ removed from the terminator, and though a neighbouring very deep crater (Ber- nouilli) had lost nearly all its shade—thus indicating extraor- dinary depth and steepness. He had been early persuaded, from many such observations, that “the existence of real acci- dental workings of nature, not dependent upon the different reflection of light, lies so evidently before our eyes, that if any one would desire a yet stronger conviction, he would do better to give up altogether the closer investigation of the lunar surface, since he (Schréter) did not believe that, with due regard to our shortsightedness, more obvious proofs were pos- sible ;” and he thinks it hence certainly demonstrated that these changes are partly atmospheric, depending upon the con- densations and clearings up of different seasons, and partly indicative of other unknown agencies working according to the peculiar nature of the surface. In this respect he calls attention to the variations in the colour of the area of Cleomedes, 364 Neighbourhood of the Lunar Spot, Mare Crisium. at some times much brighter and more uniform than at others ; this, he says, may partly arise from a different angle of reflec- tion, but is probably in part also atmospheric, resembling the periodical changes of weather in some portions of our globe. For, he argues, if reflection alone were concerned, why should the change extend uniformly over the whole breadth of the surface, instead of advancing across it by degrees? and why should not many other similar surfaces be similarly affected ? while, on the contrary, as a general rule, the greater spots pre- serve their colour invariable, whether bright or grey ; of which he alleges Copernicus and Plato as instances, and the large spots in the immediate vicinity of Cleomedes itself. He has also called attention to similar variations in the immediate neighbourhood of Cleomedes, especially between it and the Mare Crisiwm, where black shadows and grey patches among the mountains exhibited to him a strange inconstancy of aspect, even under similar angles of incidence and reflection of hight. As to all this, Beer and Midler would be at issue with their predecessor, and would resolve the whole affair into the effects of varied illumination. It is very probable that there may have been more in this than Schréter has allowed for; and as the question affects the labours of future selenographers, and may prove perplexing to the uninitiated student, it may be well to give some attention to it in this place. That apparent change of position in the lunar spots which is ° termed Libration, arises, as is well known, from two independent causes, and the whole effect is a combination of the results of each. Libration in longitude—which causes sometimes more of the E., sometimes more of the W., limb to come into sight, and throws the mean apparent centre of the moon at one time into the H., at another into the W. hemisphere—arises from the unequable velocity of the moon in its elliptic orbit, combined with its equable rotation on its axis, whence any given point on its sur- face will sometimes appear in advance of, sometimes behind, its mean position. This will, of course, alter the perspective pro- jection of all objects in an HE. and W. direction, affecting the equator most strongly, the poles not at all; while, as regards the direction of the incident solar light, and the corresponding amount of shadow, the result will be the same as if the globe of : the moon were swung slightly round its axis, backwards or for- wards, as the case may be, alternately on each side of its normal or mean position. The real length of the shadow will thus be a little varied, by turning the object somewhat to or from the sun, and its projected (or apparent) length, by turning it somewhat to or from the eye ; the former effect being greatest in the centre, and least near the limb, the latter greater at a distance of 45° from the centre than in either of those two positions. The extreme EE Neighbourhood of the Lunar Spot, Mare Crisiwm. 365 amount of this libration in longitude may be 7°55’ each way. The other kind of libration, that im latitude, is of'a less simple nature, and its effect is not so readily allowed for. It arises from the fact, that the plane of the moon’s equator is coincident neither with that of the earth’s orbit nor its own. Were all these identical, the moon’s equator would always pass as an imaginary straight line across the centre of the disc, and the poles would stand exactly in the limb. But, as the moon’s orbit is inclined to the ecliptic at a mean 5° 8’ 49’, the lunar globe is carried, during each revolution, alternately above and below the level of the eye ; and hence the equator is sensibly straight only when the moon is in its node or passage across the ecliptic. At all other times it is projected, either upwards or downwards, into a narrow semi-ellipse of continually-varying dimensions cor- responding with the moon’s latitude, and each polar region in turn comes more into sight, or passes away into the invisible hemisphere. Such would have been the case from the inclination of the orbit, even had the plane of the moon’s equator been co- incident with, or parallel to, that ofthe ecliptic ; but, in addition to this, it is inclined to it at an angle of 1° 28’ 47”; so that the whole change in projection, ina N. and 8. direction, may amount at a maximum 6° 47’ on either side of the mean position. This has, of course, the same effect as the libration in longitude, m proportion to its amount, on the perspective foreshortening of the surface, though not, like that, in an H. and W., but im a N. and S. direction. On the contrary, it has no influence on the actual length of the shadows; though, from its allowing us to see sometimes more, sometimes less, of the fore- shortened interior of a crater or base of a mountain, there may be a little change in their visible extent. It has, however, an effect of some importance on the direction m which the shadows fall. We have been referring only to the angle under which we view the surface—in other words, the angle of reflected light ; but the angle of incident light has also to be considered, since it also varies, though to a less degree. The deviation of the moon on either side of the ecliptic, is, in this case, less im- portant, the 380-fold distance of the sun rendering its angular amount there so much less than it subtends at the earth ; but the inclination of the lunar equator to the ecliptic, as seen from the sun, produces the full effect of its angular value; and the moon’s axis being tilted at one time towards, at another from the sun, the direction of the incident light will be varied in the same way, though by no means in so great a degree, as in the different seasons upon the earth; the sun will not rise and set at precisely the same points of the lunar horizon, or attain ex- actly the same meridian altitude; and hence, the appearance of objects may be much varied, especially of such as he nearly in 366 Neighbourhood of the Lunar Spot, Mare Crisium. an E. and W. direction. For imstance, the face of a cliff may, from this cause, in one lunation be visible in feeble illu- mination ; in another, at the same age of the moon, it may be entirely darkened itself, and even cast a perceptible line of shade. Gruithuisen pointed out the effect thus produced on the dimensions of the shadow of the lunar Apennines, but it seems not to have been duly allowed for by Schroter. While the direction both of incident and reflected light is thus continually changing from the combined effect of the two librations, it is easy to see how optical illusions may be of continual occurrence, and how objects whose diversified planes and angles render their aspect peculiarly dependent upon the mode of illumination, may often exhibit themselves in a strangely altered guise; and the fact that even the marina and minima of libration are subject to some amount of change, although slght, from the peculiarly variable character of the lunar orbit, introduces still greater difficulty into the attempt to eliminate, from observed appearances, this fruitful source of uncertainty and deception. The student will, it is hoped, regard with indulgence this disquisition, which has extended itself far beyond the original intention, and which goes in part over ground traversed upon a former occasion. ‘lio some readers it may appear very un- interesting. But, as far as I have observed, the differing character and combined result of the two lbrations have not been fully and distinctly elucidated in the ordinary treatises on elementary astronomy, though it is of especial importance that the subject should be clearly understood by the seleno- graphical student: in no other way can he form a just notion, from his own observations, of the probability of actual change in progress on the lunar surface, or of its being subject to atmospheric obscuration ; and in no other way could we expect to bring to any satisfactory conclusion a comparison of the labours of our predecessors. In the present, as in mahy another instance, B. and M. challenge the supposed variations of Schréter. On the grounds just assigned, implied rather than distinctly explained by them, their position may be defended, that the alleged changes may be accounted for without the supposition of physical alteration. On the other hand, in behalf of Schréter’s idea, his own argument may be adduced, that such merely optical effects must be confined within narrow limits, or the whole surface would appear to be in a state of fluctuation and uncertainty, and changes would supervene in the course of a few hours’ observation ; experience showing, on the contrary, a great and general uniformity, which renders the occasional exceptions the more remarkable : to which may be added that all such variations must be periodical, and would Neighbourhood of the Lunar Spot, Mare Crisium. 367 ultimately compensate themselves under the eye of a patient observer :—the epoch of mean libration returning almost — exactly at the end of every three years. So that at present the decision of this curious question may perhaps be considered as In abeyance: if we are forced to conclude that Schréter was often mistaken from not sufficiently adverting to the effects of libration, or from his imperfect mode of measuring it, we may ourselves occasionally err on the other side, and only impede fair and full investigation, by ascribing everything which we do not know how to account for to this cause alone. To return in conclusion to Cleomedes, the original source of all this discussion. The objects in the interior specified by B. and M. are, a central hill, 6° bright in the full moon, but not very distinguishable under oblique illumination: it is not evident whether this is the same with the hill described by Schréter, or whether what he saw was a part of the ring of a small crater (B in the map of B. and M.), a little S. of it: three deep craters equally luminous in the darker 8. part, of which the map shows but two, that furthest S. lying, where Schroter once perceived it, at the foot of the wall :—and in the N. part three somewhat larger, that in the W. 8° bright and very conspicuous, but, as even these advocates of unchangeableness are obliged to admit, not always equally defined, in the full moon. Gruithuisen tells us that, 1825, April 6, he saw distinctly in the W. part of the interior of Cleomedes elevations resembling long straight hills, including several rhombus-shaped spaces between them. These rapidly became invisible, and he thought the appearance indicative of something artificial, per- haps connected with cultivation. His figure, as engraved by Bode, represents between the W. wall and the central hill, which is double and casts a long shadow across half the plain to the WSW. (thus showing the libration at the time), an object of considerable size, like a lozenge in heraldry ; in fact, a foreshortened square lying obliquely, subdivided into four similar spaces by a cross-bar each way. But Gruithuisen him- self condemns it as an unsuccessful representation. In an old sketch of my own, 1849, April 26, the central hill is also represented as distinctly double; and there are two craters to the N. as in Schréter, the larger one having, as he has described it, a small elevation in the midst of its grey - interior. I have not yet examined Cleomedes with my present instrument. On a mountain plateau, a little to the left of this great ring, B. and M. describe a crater between four and five miles across, on whose wall another of one-third its diameter has encroached. ‘This latter is worthy of notice, as being appa- rently deeper than it is broad. 368: On the Herring. TRANSITS OF JUPITER'S SATELLITES. June 6th. Shadow of II. departs, 10h. 13m. 7th, I. enters, 12h. 20m. ; its shadow, 12h. 56m. 9th. Shadow of II. goes off, 9h. 37m. 13th. Shadow of II. enters, 10h. 27m. ; II. goes off, 11h.20m. 16th. I. departs, 10h. 45m. ; its shadow, llh. 31m. Shadow of III., 11h. 33m. (an interesting _ conjuncture ; the two shadows will appear on the disc together, — that of III. being distinguishable by its larger size and slower motion, and they will pass off nearly at the same time). 20th. II. enters, 11h. 20m. 28rd. III. enters, 9h. 49m.; I. follows, 10h. 21m.; shadow of L., 11h. 14m.; III. goes off, 11h. 52m. ; its shadow not entering till 13h. 22m. OCCULTATIONS. June 11th. p* Leonis, 6 mag., 10h. 38m.to 11h. 37m. 17th. w' Scorpii, 44 mag., 12h, 27m. to 13h. 34m. ON THE HERRING. BY W. NEWTON MACCARTNEY, COR. SEC. G.N. 8. Tue history of the Clupea harengus is but imperfectly known, our information comprising only a few more easily observed facts, while those habits which would assist us in the preserva- tion and cultivation of the herring-fishery have as yet escaped our notice. What has been discovered is only the foundation for future efforts, which, if conducted systematically, cannot fail to produce valuable results. While our information concerning some of the lower forms of life is so complete, it is to be re- gretted that our knowledge of the herring is so meagre, for we lay ourselves open to the cui bono of the utilitarian, who, ever ready to pounce upon the naturalist, demands why we spend time unravelling the generation of the medusve, the animality of the zoophytes, and other questions, to the neglect of those which, like the habits of the herring, have a greater interest, and are of more economic value. As yet, it must be confessed, deep mystery hangs over such questions as the age, season of spawning, and many other habits of the herring, which, for the public good, should be cleared up and set at rest, for measures taken in ignorance may result in the extermination of a most important and valuable fishery. The herring is placed among the Physostomes, with the salmon, cod, eel, and other fishes, because the air-bladder and stomach are joined by means of an air-tube passing from the one to the other. It belongs to the order of Malacopterous fishes, which have their fins supported by flexible and branched On the Herring. - 3869 jointed rays, and are possessed of comb-like gills, with very large gill orifices. The most important family in this order is the Clupeoid, embracing the herring, sprat, whitebait, pilchard, _ and anchovy, with many more fishes, largely made use of for food. The herring is exclusively an old-world fish, being confined to the coasts of Britain and Hurope, but never found on those of America. It congregates in large shoals, swimming near the surface of the water, and, because of its numbers, has re- ceived the specific name of harengus, which, according to Artidi, is the latinized form of the German word “ harimg ’’—a host. From observations made on its growth, we are disposed to believe that it is found in four conditions; or, in other words, it has four names for its various stages of growth. The fry, which are small, minute fish newly escaped from the egg, retain this name till they reach the second stage, when they measure from five to six inches in length, and are then called maties. While maties, there is a large deposition of fat surrounding the alimentary canal, which is stored up for the use of the individual during the breeding season. While in the matie form, the repro- ductive organs are but slightly developed, but as they become full herrings, which is the name for the third change, the stored fat becomes absorbed, and by some is thought to assist in the development of the ova, which, in the full herring, attains its fullest growth, and is then shed or deposited. After the performance of this function, the fish is sickly and weak, and is then called a shotten or spent fish. These four, the fry, matie, full, and spent, comprise the changes which the herring undergoes from its escape from the egg till its per- formance of the reproductive function. While passing through these changes, it moves from deep to shallow water, according to the season of the year and the requirements of nature. The older writers believed that the herring was only a visitant to our shores, coming in great “sculls,” or shoals, from the Arctic seas to spawn upon our shallows, and after circumnavigating our islands, journeying back to their icy houses in the northern ocean. Pennant, unable to account for them after they left the spawning-beds, considered they must have returned to the Arctic seas, ‘in order to recruit themselves after the fatigue of spawning.” He never took into account the exertion and labour of a journey due north, nor the difficulty of getting suffi- cient food in the ice-bound seas around Spitzbergen. We have the testimony of Arctic explorers that the herring is compara- tively rare in the north; and, above all, we kuow that they never leave our seas, but remain in deep water not far from the ‘spawnine-beds. The fry, after leaving the egg, move about on the shallow 370 On the Herring. spawning-eround till they attain a few inches in size, and then they take to the deep water near the shore, where they find abundance of small crustacea and animalculz on which they feed and become fat maties. ‘They then change into full herrings, and leave the deep sea, approaching the shore where it is suit- able for spawning, and there, in great numbers, one shoal above_ another, extending for many miles, they begin to shed the spawn, which falls to the bottom, and, being of a sticky nature, clings to the stones, and there remains, unless disturbed by storms or trawls, till the young fry burst the egg. The spent fish then leave the shallow water, and seek rest and food in the deep waters far beyond the reach of the net. How long the herring takes in passing through these changes, and becoming an adult fish, isnot known. Some think two, and others as many as Seven years are required. We are not disposed, for various reasons, to agree with these observers, for we consider that all the time required is not more than one year. When we consider that each shoal of fish affects a certain specified part of the sea, never spawning except on the “family ground,” we cannot account for the plenty of one year and the scarcity of the next, except by the theory that they pass from the ova to the adult im one year. If we compare the ages and charges of a herring with those of a salmon, we think that the following estimate of the herring’s age will be tolerably exact :—two weeks for the pro- duction of the fry from the egg, three months to become a matie, four months to feed and fatten into a full fish, and two months to develope the ova and to shed it, thus making ten months from leaving the egg till it becomes a shotten herring ready to retire into deep water, there to become again a full herring, and thus for years returning to spawn, if it is lucky enough to escape the enemies which are always ready to devour and destroy it. The enemies of the herring are legion. Codfish, hakes, eels, and porpoises pursue it beneath the waves. Razorbills, gannets, and gulls watch its progress from above, and man, provided with implements, does his utmost to capture and destroy it. Such havoc is made by the fish among the spawn and fry that only one fish in every six thousand eggs comes to maturity; yet, with such a waste, the numbers remain as great as ever, for each full fish deposits about seventy thousand eggs; so that there is every probability, if the fishing is rightly conducted, of plenty continuing to all time. The fish are said to be sometimes erratic in their tastes, affecting one spawning ground for many years, and then for- saking it. Pennant considered they became dissatisfied with the beds, and thus left them, but the true reason is the illegal On the Herring. orl and suicidal means which have been used for their capture, resulting in overfishing of the herring and the destruction of the spawn. When trawling is practised, great damage is done to the spawn, and the net bemg drawn through a “scull,”? or shoal of the fish, breaks what is called the “eye” of the fish, or, im other words, scatters the shoal, and frightens them from their usual haunts. Pennant was wrong in supposing that the one shoal of her- ring visited various spawning-beds, for every fish-curer knows well that the fish frequenting one lcch or bay is different from those spawning ten miles distant. In fact, the fish can be dis- tinguished as Lochfynes or Stornoways with perfect ease, thus proving beyond doubt that they have but a local range, and ‘return to spawn on the same shallows they formerly frequented. These spawning-beds are well known to the fishers, who often use illegal means to compass the capture of the spawning fish by employing trawl-nets, which, dragged over the mass of Spawning and gravid fish, tears up the spawn and entangles ‘great quantities of the fish. The spawn torn from the bottom is driven by the tide ashore, -and, consequently, rendered useless. The trawl compasses the capture of the sickly, weak, and unhealthy fish, and renders them unfit for preservation. Trawling is made illegal on the west coast of Scotland, yet there are many who risk their property in the pursuit ; and as there is both excitement and profit in the work, all the efforts as yet made have been unsuccessful in putting an end to it. -The peculiar mode of fishing adopted by the trawlers is as follows :—A net, about one hundred yards in length, with meshes of three-quarters of an inch in size, 1s supplied with corks on one edge and heavy weights on the-other, and this is attached by the extreme ends to two boats, one of which remains stationary over the spawning-bed, while the other describes a circle round it, returning close to the side of its consort. By this act, the net which has sunk to the bottomis dragged round myriads of the spawning fish and enclosed. The net is now raised to the surface, and the fish taken on board, when, with _ sail and oar, the boat makes for the harbour, there to dispose of the ill-gotten gains for a good round sum, because the first of the market is gained, as the drift-net fishers are not able to get into port till on in the day. When the trawlers come ashore, large quantities of spawn is found in the boat, and, according to good authority, many tons are cast ashore after the trawl has been in operation. Couch bears testimony to the destruction caused by the trawl, and fears for the ultimate value of our fisheries. To understand the drift-net fishing, we will, as the night VOL. V.—NO. V. ca 372 On the Herring. approaches, slip on board a fishing craft, and spend a night at the sea. As the sun sinks beneath the western hills we leave the shore, our sails are unfurled, and our boat dashes out to sea. The fishers watch for signs of the herring, which are easily noticed, for yonder the gulls and gannets are in plenty, wheel- ing in the air, and then dashing into the sea, emerging with a ~- clupea for supper. ‘The herring are there in plenty, and to that place our course is shaped. As we approach, a faint phosphorescence is noticeable on the waters, caused by the pre- sence of the herring “scull.” Here, then, we begin to shoot our nets, which are in lengths of 800 to 2000 yards, having meshes of one inch. The net, as it is passed over the stern of the boat, has small corks along the upper edge, with here and there large bladders, which keep it above the surface, while the lower and under part sinks to a depth of eight yards. When all the net is out, the boat is allowed to drift, with the net attached. When morning breaks the net is hauled in, the fish unmeshed, and then the boat is turned harbourwards, with her cheeping cargo—for the fish emit a sound similar to that— and we arrive just as the sun rises above the eastern hills, gilding with glory the rippling waves. The drift-net allows the fish to entangle themselves—no force is used, and the shoals of fish are not disturbed, for, while the fish are moving about during the night they come against the meshes, and in their efforts to pass on get caught by the gill covers, and are cap- tured. The herring caught in the drift-net are all healthy, lively herring, because only these swim near the surface. They are, therefore, “halesome faring,” while those taken by the trawl are unfit for human food. Herring can be caught by means of bait, and they often rise to an artificial fly; but the formation of their gills, and the tenderness of their mouth, renders their capture difficult. We have made mention of the fish leaving some spawning- beds, and staying away for many seasons. The fisher thinks they are scared by noise; and in Scotland, in olden times, no cannon was allowed to be fired during the time of spawning. It is said that the herring forsook the Baltic after the battle of Copenhagen, and are only now returning to their former — haunts. Lately an outcry arose against burning kelp and running steamboats, as the smoke of the one and the noise of the other scared the fish away; but the most wonderful reason given for their disappearance is that mentioned by a Member of Parliament, in 1835, before the House of Commons. He said that the herring had deserted the coasts near the residence of a priest who had signified his intention of taking tithes of fish. In concluding this brief sketch of the herring and its Comets. 3738 history, we cannot forget to draw attention to the recent inquiry made by the Royal Commissioners. Much valuable information has been gained by it concerning this important fishery ; and it is to be hoped that the exposure of our igno- rance will result in some experiments being made to discover the true answers to such questions as those we have mooted in this paper. We think that a series of experiments.similar to those made upon the salmon would be of great use. We are aware of some who are willing to aid, both with time and money, mm conducting such experiments; and, in our opinion, till such is done, the herring will be as great a mystery as the salmon was. COMETS. AN ACCOUNT OF ALL THE COMETS WHOSE ORBITS HAVE NOT BEEN CALOULATED. BY G. F. CHAMBERS. (Continued from page 221, vol. v.) 840 [1.] On December 3 a comet was seen in the H. coun- try.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) . 841 [i.] Before the battle of Fontenay (that is, before June 25), a comet was seen in Sagittarius.—(Annal. Fuld.) In July or August a comet was seen near y Aquariii—(Ma- tuoan-lin.) 841 [i1.] On December 22 a comet was seen near « Piscis Australis ; it passed through Pegasus into the circle of perpe- tual apparition. On February 9, 842, it had disappeared.— (Gaubil.) It was seen in the W.from January 7 till February 138.—(Chron. Turon.) . T 852. In March—April a comet appeared in Orion.—(Ma- tuoan-lin.) 855. A comet was seen in France for three weeks.— (Chronicon 8S. Mawentit.) Perhaps in the month of August. 857. On September 22 a comet with a tail 3° long was seen in Scorpio.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 858. At the time of the death of Pope Benedict III.a comet appeared in the H.; its tail was turned towards the W.—(Ptole- meus Lucensis, Historia Heclesiastica, xvi. 9.) Benedict died on April 8. 864, On May 1 acomet was seen.—(Chronicon Floriacense.) On June 21 a comet was seen to come from the BE. It was near « and § Arietis, and had a tail 3° long.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 866. Comets were seen before the death of Bardas,—(Con- 374 Coiets. stantinus Porphyrogennetus, Incerti Continuatoris, iv.) Bardas was killed on April 21. 868. About January 29 a comet was seen for seventeen days. It was under the tail of the Little Bear, and advanced to Triangulum.—(Annal. Fuld.) It was seen in China in the sidereal divisions of y Arietis and « Muscee.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) ~~ . 869. A comet announced the death of Lotharius the Younger.—(Pontanus, Historia Gelrica,v.) Lotharius died on August 8. In September a comet was observed near y, «, 9, T, Persei. It went to the N.H.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 873. A comet was seen in France for twenty-five days.— (Chronicon Andegavense.) 875. The death of the Emperor Louis II. was announced by a burning star like a torch, which showed itself on June 7 inthe N. It was seen from June 6 in the N.E. at the first hour of the night. It was more brilliant than comets usually are, and had a fine tail. This bright comet, with its long tail, was seen morning and evening during the whole of June.— (Breve Chronicon Andree.) - After harmonizing some discrepan- cies of dates, Pingré says, ‘The comet would have appeared on June 3 in Aries; having but little latitude, it would con- sequently have risen a little after midnight, and would have been seen that same night. ‘The following days, as its longi- tude diminished, and its north latitude increased, it would have been seen by June 6 or June 7, in the evening, towards the N.E.— (Comet. 1. 349.) 877. ‘In the second year of the entrance of Charles the Bald into Italy a comet was seen in the month of March in the W. and in the constellation Libra. It lasted for fifteen days, but was less bright than the preceding one [that of 875]. In the same year the Emperor Charles died.””—(Chronicon Novali- ciense.) Being in Libra, it was in opposition to the Sun, and was therefore visible all night ; in the evening in the EH. and in the morning in the W.—(Pingré Comet. i. 350.) Ma-tuoan-lin says that it appeared in the fifth Moon, or in June—July. 882. bn January 18, at the first hour of the night, a comet with a prodigiously long tail was seen.—(Annal. luld.) 885. A comet was seen between a or 7 Persei and « Gemi- norum.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 886. On June 13 a comet was seen in the sidereal divisions of uw’ Scorpii and y Sagittarii. It traversed Ursa Major and Bootis, near o and 7.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 891. On May 12 a comet with a tail 100° long appeared near the feet of Ursa Major; it went towards the HE. It passed by a Bootis, and went into the vicinity of 8 Leonis. On July 5 it had disappeared.—(Ma-tuoan-lin; J. Asserius. Annales.) Interary Notices. 379 892 [i.] A comet appeared this year in the tail of Scorpio. It lasted four weeks, and was followed by an extreme drought in April and May.—(Chron. Andegav.) In June a comet with a tail 2° long appeared.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) 892 [u.] In November—December a comet appeared im the sidereal divisions of @ Sagittarii and 8 Capricorni.—(Ma- tuoan-lin.) 892. [ii.] On December 28 a comet appeared in the S.W. On December 31, the sky being cloudy, it was not seen.— (Ma-tuoan-lin.) This may be identical with the preceding. 893. After several months of very bad weather, the clouds went away, and on May 6 a comet was seen near s and x Ursee Majoris, with a tail 100° long. It went towards the H., entered the region lying around 6 Leonis, and traversed Bodtis near Arcturus, passing the region around a Herculis. It was visible for six weeks, and its leneth gradually increased to 200°. The clouds then hid it.—(Ma-tuoan-lin.) The length is incredi- ble, though Gaubil gives the same. 894. In February—March a comet was seen in Gemini.— (Ma-tuoan-lin.) LITERARY NOTICES. On THE STRUCTURE OF THE SO-CALLED APoLAR, UNIPOLAR, AND TRI- pouaR Nerve Cents or THE Frog. By Lionut 8. Bzazs, F.R.S. etc., etc. Trans. Royal Soc., xxvi. On Dericrency or Virat Powsr in Disnass. By Lionen S. Beare, M.D., F.R.S., etc. (Richards). First Prinorpies. Ibid. . ArcHives or Mepicrins, Epirep sy Lionen §. Beats, vol. iv. (Churchill). The first of these publications would alone secure for Dr. Beale a foremost place amongst physiological microscopists. The plates are beautiful illustrations of a series of investigations truly wonder- ful for the care and skill with which they have been carried out. They are as much an honour to the microscopical science of our country, as they are proofs of the highest order of talent for this class of research. We made a slight mention of this paper in our number for Sept. 1863, p. 148, and we now present the reader witha summary of the most important of its author’s conclusions :— ‘1. That in all cases nerve cells are connected with nerve fibres, and that a cell probably influences only the fibres with which it is structurally continuous. 2. That apolar and unipolar nerve cells do not exist; but that all nerve cells have at least two fibres in connection with them. 3. That in certain ganglia of the frog there are large pear-shaped nerve cells, from the lower part of which two fibres proved a straight fibre continuous with the central part of the 376 Literary Notices. body of the cell, and a fibre or fibres continuous with the circum- ferential part of the cell, which is coiled spirally round the straight fibre. 4. These two fibres often lying very near to, and in some cases, when the spiral is very lax, nearly parallel with each other, at length pass towards the periphery in opposite directions. 5. Ganglion cells exhibit different characters, according to their age. In the youngest cells neither of the fibres exhibit a spiral arrangement: in fully formed cells there is a considerable extent of spiral fibre; but in old cells the number of coils is much greater. 6. These ganglion cells may be formed in three ways, a, froma gran- ular mass, like that which forms the early condition of all struc- tures; b, by the division or splitting up of a mass like a single ganglion cell, but before the mass has assumed the complete and perfect form; c, by changes occurring in what appears to be the nucleus of a nerve fibre... . 8. There are nuclei in the body of thencell, . 2... 9. The matter of which the nucleus is composed has been termed by me germinal matter. From it alone growth takes place. .... 10. The nucleolus consists of germinal matter. .... 15. As nerve fibres grow old, the soluble matters are ab- sorbed, leaving a fibrous material which is known as connective tissue, and corresponding change is observed in other textures both in health and disease.” , We are very glad that the two lectures called ‘“ First Principles,” and “On Deficiency of Vital Power,’ have been published in a cheap pamphlet form, because, whatever doubt may attach to certain portions of Dr. Beale’s speculations, the facts which he adduces and very much of his reasoning appear to us essential to the right understanding of many highly important problems. Instead of vaguely telling his pupils that irritation excites inflammation, he shows that in a normal state what he terms “ germinal matter,” in living cells, receives and converts a regulated portion of nutri- ment from without. By softening the layer of what he terms “formed material,” which surrounds the germinal matter, or by tearing through the formed material, an abnormal quantity of pabulum is introduced, and an excessive action of the germinal matter takes place that is not consistens with the health of the organism of which the cells form a part. ‘The abnormal pus cor- puscle is produced from the germinal or living matter of a normal epithetial cell, in consequence of the germinal matter of this cell being supplied with pabulum much more freely than in the normal state.” In the other lecture Dr. Beale lays down the proposition that all living particles have sprung from pre-existing living matter. It cannot be said that we know this; but it may be true. “ Hach separate particle increases, not by particles already existing being applied to it, or coalescing with it, but by the passage of soluble matters into its very substance, and their conversion into matter of the same kind.” Arguing logically from the premisses we have extracted, Dr. Beale contends that pus cells, cancer cells, and so forth, exhibit a high, and not a low degree of vital activity. Disease often differs from health only in the too great activity Lnterary Notices. 377 with which certain functions are performed, and he shows that alcohol, by hardening the outside layer of cells, diminishes the supply of nutriment that reaches the germinal matter, and thus checks the excess of action that is domg harm. Having assailed the sham explanations of ordinary physiologists about ‘“ diminution of vital force,” “ irritation,” etc., it is curious to find Dr. Beale reverting to the style of argument in which the purgative action of jalap was “explained,” by asserting that the drug possessed a “‘ cathartic principle ;” and yet this is done in a paper that will be found in the Archives of Medicine. Dr. Beale says, “Tt seems to me probable that the most minute living particle which it is possible to conceive, is a spherule, and this spherule is capable of altering its form. I believe that the alteration results from the influence of wonderful inferent powers, of the nature of which we know nothing as yet, which wonderful powers may at least for the present be termed ‘vital,’ to distinguish them from physical and chemical properties.” In another passage Dr. Beale says, “I have endeavoured to show that the power of movement resides in the living particles themselves, and have expressed the opinion that these movements cannot be explained by physics or chemistry.” In another paper the whole fabric of modern science, with its conservation and correlation of forces, is assailed to make way for the return of the old metaphysical assumption, “vital force,” which Dr. Beale affirms to be something quite distinct from chemical or physical force in any form. He com- plains that “vital power no longer excites the speculation of the physiologist or the wonder of the profound metaphysician;” but if it has ceased to do, it is simply because men have dis- covered that ‘vital force” is a phrase to cover ignorance, not a term denoting a precise thing. There is no special mystery in vital force, if it designates the power that is manifested in living beings. All force is equally mysterious. Scientifically we know nothing of the primary cause, origin, or action of any force whatever. We know that a certain force is, and we find out afew of its rela- tions of antecedence or consequence, and when we come to the highest actions we know of, those of mind and consciousness, we have not the faintest idea why or how the Divine Being has linked them, in our case, with what are called vital actions of an organism. When Dr. Beale states that living particles must possess an “inherent moving power,” we do not know what he means. Would they move under any conditions, and in any medium, as they do under particular conditions, and in a particular medium? If not, they are under the influence of surrounding circumstances, and their motions would appear to be, not an inherent faculty, but the result of their acting, and being acted upon, by matter external to themselves. Nothing is gained by assuming that they are governed by vital forces, “of the nature of which we know nothing,” to the exclusion of all the forces of which—so far as their manifesta- tions go—we know a little. It is because we admire Dr. Beale’s great talent, and appreciate his services, that we urge him not to tumble into the old quagmire of substituting imaginary metaphy- 378 Interary Notices. sical entities like “vital force,” for more scientific methods of ex- plaining what he sees, or for what is often required, a simple con-. fession that the explanation is unknown. Lessons oN Exnementary Borany. By Daniet Ottver, F.R.S., F.L.S., Keeper of the Herbarium of the Royal Gardens, Kew, and Professor of Botany in University College, London (Macmillan and Co.).—In noticing the Memoirs of Professor Henslow in a former number, we adverted to his success as a botanical teacher of village children as well as of his Cambridge class. The present work is partly original, and partly founded upon the papers left by Professor Henslow, and it appears to us an invaluable introduction to the study of botanical science. It is very clearly written, and amply illustrated, leading the student on by an admirable method. As the object is to teach botany as a science, and not as a mere art of giving nicknames to vegetables, it will be highly appreciated by the possessors of microscopes, who will learn from it what they are to look for in accessible plants. It cannot be too strongly recom- mended to students and intelligent families. A Series or Szven Essays on Universat Science. By Toomas Crark Westrietp, F.S.A. (Hardwicke.)—The publication of this book is a mistake. The author should not have attempted a subject so far beyond his powers. Saxpy’s WeatHer System, or Lunar InrLueNce oN THE WEA- THER. By J. M. Saxpy, Hsq., R.N. Second Edition (Longmans). —Captain Saxby’s main dictum is, “‘ That the moon never seems to cross the earth’s equator without there occurring at the same time a palpable and unmistakeable change inthe weather. Such changes most commonly are accompanied either by strong winds, gales, sudden frost, sudden thaw, sudden calms,.or other certain inter- ruptions of the weather, according to the season.” The present volume contains many illustrations which the author considers to prove the truth of this principle, and concludes with numerous predictions for 1864 and 1865. Homes witnourt Hanps. By the Rev. J. G. Woop, M.A., F.L.S. (Longmans).—An interesting family work, published in monthly parts, with numerous and excellent illustrations. It is a good idea to give a popular and entertaining account of the various members of the animal kingdom remarkable for constructing “‘ Homes without Hands,” and Mr. Wood’s pleasant labours are sure to be welcome in thousands of homes constructed with hands. Lecture on tHE Sources or tun Nite. By Cnartes T. Bex, Esq., Phil. D., F.S.A., Manager of London Institution.—This lecture was first delivered at the London Institution on the 20th January, 1864, and has since been repeated elsewhere, but not formally pub- lished, though printed by the London Institution Board of Manage- ment. Dr. Beke affirms that “ Captains Speke and Grant have returned from visiting three sides of Lake Nyanza, leaving wholly unexplored a blank space of 50,000 geographical square miles (larger in extent than the whole of England and Wales) on the a ———— Interary Notices. 379 fourth and uphill side of the lake, where the sources of the river have naturally to be looked for.” Tur CLASSIFICATION OF THE ScrENCES; to which are added Reasons ror Dissenting From THE PuiosopHy or M. Comrs. By Hoersert Spencer, Author of “ First Principles,” “ Social Statics,” ete. Williams and Norgate. We cannot divert from our ordinary subjects enough space to do justice to Mr. Spencer’s important essay, in which he points out where his philosophy differs from that of Comte, to whom we think he is scarcely just. M. Comte made a serious mistake in attempt- ing to construct a system in which an intelligent First Cause had no place; and when he tried to imagine a kind of theology that would supply the defect, he resorted to speculations of the most unsatis- factory kind. We believe, however, that he has exercised a very beneficial influence over modern thought through the truth and utility of many of his ideas. His classification of the sciences was certainly imperfect; but this was partly occasioned by the fact that there are really no palpable lines of demarcation, one science merging into another at several points. Mr. Spencer’s labours supply valuable material for hard, accurate thinking upon this subject ; but we do not believe his classification will satisfy many © minds. We should, however, be unjust if we did not admit the skill with which he has developed his ideas. THe PrincreLEs or AGRICULTURE. By Witiiam Brann, M.R.A.S., Author of “ Principles of Construction in Arches, Piers, Buttresses, etc.” Second Edition. (Longmans.)—Mr. Bland is well known in Kent as an eminent authority upon agricultural questions, and he has also distinguished himself by displaying great mechanical inge- nuity in various departments, boat-building among the rest. The first edition of the present work has been long out of print, and the new one, which is somewhat enlarged, and brought down to date, gives the results of experience in a manner that cannot fail to be useful to agriculturists. Mr. Bland’s practical knowledge seems to us in advance of his theoretical acquirements; but the reader who gains a large amount of information from his pages, will not be disposed to cavil if, for example, he finds the word “ fermentation” used in a manner that is not very clear. It is important to notice Mr. Bland’s opinions on landlords and leases. He thinks “the tenant should be allowed full scope to do what he pleases till within the last three years of his lease,” and that at the expiration of the lease the landlord should make an allowance for all improvements. 380 Proceedings of Learned Societies. PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.—April 27. Discovery or Fish in Upper Limestone or Permian Jorma-- TION.—Mr. Kirkby communicated an account of the discovery of fish remains in the upper limestone of the Permian formation. The strata were exposed in some quarries ; the bed from which the fish remains were chiefly obtained was that which is known as the ** Flexible Limestone.” The author stated that at least nine-tenths of the specimens belong to Paleoniscus varians, the remainder belonging to two or three species of the same genus, and to a species of Acrolepis. Detailed descriptions of the different species of fish were given, as also were short notices of the species of plants sometimes found associated with them, one of which he believed to be Calamites aranaceus, a Triassic species. The occurrence of Palconisct with smooth scales was stated to be antagonistic to Agassiz’s conclusion that the Permian species of that genus have striated, and the Coal-measure species smooth scales. Mr. Kirkby remarked that the fauna of the period appeared to be of an Estuarine character, and he expressed his opinion that the fishes were imbedded suddenly, as a result of some general catastrophe. : Tue Fossiz Corats or THE West Inpran Istanps. By Mr. P. Martin Duncan.—The results of the process of fossilization, as seen in the West Indian fossil corals, is very remarkable, and has much obscured their specific characters, rendering their determination extremely difficult. Hence it is desirable thoroughly to examine their different varieties of mineralization, and to compare their present condition with the different stages in the decay and fossilization of recent corals as now seen in progress. Thus the author was enabled to show the connection between the destruction of the minuter struc- tures of the coral by decomposition, and certain forms of fossilization in which those structures are imperfectly preserved ; and he likewise stated that the filling up of the interspaces by granular carbonate of lime and other substances, as well as the induration of certain species, during a “ pre-fossil” and “ post-mortem” period, gave rise to certain varieties of fossilization, and that the results of those opera- tions were perpetuated in a fossil state. The forms of mineralization described by Dr. Duncan are— Calcareous, Siliceous, Siliceous and Crystalline, Siliceous and Destructive, Siliceous Casts, Calcareo-siliceous, Calcareo-siliceous and Destructive, and Calcareo-siliceous Casts. In describing these forms especial reference was made to those in which the structures were more or less destroyed during the replacement by silica of the carbonate of lime of the coral. In explaining the nature and mode of formation of the large casts of calices from Antigua, the author drew attention to the fact that the silicification is more intense on the surface and in the centre of the corallum than in the intermediate region ; and, when 9 Proceedings of Learned Societies. ' 381 examined microscopically, it could be seen that the replacement of the carbonate of lime began by the silica appearing as minute points in the centre of the interspaces and of the sclerenchyma, and not on their surface. In conclusion, the influence of all the forms enume- rated above in the preservation of organisms was discussed, and the relation of hydrated silica to destructive forms of fossilization was pointed out as being one cause of the incompleteness of the geologi- cal record. May 11. Mammatian Remains near Toame.—Mr. Codrington described a railway-cutting through a hill between Oxford and Thame which exposed a section of certain gravel-beds, from which many Mam- malian remains were collected. The hill is nearly surrounded by the Thame and two small tributaries, and consists of Kimmeridge clay capped by a bed of coarse gravel overlain by sandy clay. The gravel consists of chalk-flints, pebbles derived from the Lower Green- sand, and fragments of mica-schist, etc., indicating a northern-drift origin ; it contained many bones of Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse, Ox, and Deer, anda single phalanx of a small carnivore, but no flint implements were discovered. Depostr at Srroup conramninc Fuint Imerements, Lanp anp FresHwater SHELLS, erc.—In the construction of a reservoir near the summit of the hill above the town of Stroud, Mr. E. Witchell observed, about two feet from the surface, a deposit of tufa contain- ing land-shells with a few freshwater bivalves; in it he subsequently discovered several flint flakes of a primitive type, and in the over- lying earth a few pieces of rude pottery. The deposit is situated on the spur of a hill nearly separated from the surrounding country by deep valleys; Mr. Witchell considered it to be comparatively recent, end concluded that it had been formed in a pond or lake, which had been caused by alandslip from the higher ground, producing a dam that stopped the downflow into the valley of the water of the neigh- bouring springs. ROYAL, INSTITUTION.—May 6. Tue Propertizs or tHE New Mrrat Inpium.—Professor Roscoe gave a lecture on the characters of this metal, which has recently been discovered by Reisch and Richter in the Zinc blende of Frei- berg, by means of the spectroscope. Indium is distinguished by having a spectrum consisting of two bright indigo-coloured lines, and by its compounds tinting the colourless flame of a Bunsen burner of a violet colour. Hitherto indium has only been obtained in very minute quantity from the Freiberg blende, consequently its properties and com- pounds have not been very carefully examined. It appears closely to resemble zinc, with which it has hitherto always been found in combination. It is, however, a softer metal, marking paper like lead; it is readily soluble in hydrochloric acid, and, heated in the 382 Proceedings of Learned Societies. open air, it oxidizes freely, yielding a white oxide easily reducible before the deoxidizing flame of the blow-pipe. The hydrated oxide is precipitated from its salts by potash and ammonia, but is insoluble in excess of either of these re-agents ; hence it is easily distinguished from both zinc and alumina. The oxide may be separated from oxide of iron, with which itis - associated in the zinc blende by precipitating the latter with bicar- bonate of soda. The precipitated sulphide is insoluble in alkalies. The quantity of indium salts exhibited by Professor Roscoe consisted of about three grains; with these he succeeded in demonstrating its properties, and exhibited the characteristic indigo spectrum in a very striking manner. Professor Roscoe also alluded to the new discoveries made with the spectroscope. Cesium and rubidium have been found to exist in many articles of human consumption, such as beet-root sugar, tea and coffee. Thallium has been found in many minerals in which its presence was hitherto unsuspected, and to occur also in Very appreciable quantity in molasses, the yeast of wine, chicory, and even in tobacco. A new and comparatively abundant source of these three rare metals, cesium, rubidium, and thallinm, has been discovered; the water of a spring near Frankfort leaves on evaporation a saline residue which contains the three metals in appreciable quantity. Recently a more attentive examination of the rays emitted by the sun’s photosphere has been made, and it is found that it exhibits no trace of potassium salts. Hence that element may be regarded as being absent from the solar atmosphere. The spectrum of burning magnesium has been found to be par- ticularly rich in chemical rays, and has consequently been used with success as a photographic light. Professqr.Roscoe stated that if the surface of burning magnesium has an apparent magnitude equal to that of the sun seen from a certain point, the chemical action effected by the magnesium on that point is equal to that produced by the sun when at an elevation of 9° 53. And that at a zenith distance of 67° 22" the visible brightness of the sun’s rays is 5247 times that of burn- ing magnesium, whilst its chemical brightness is only 36°6 times as great as that of the burning metal; hence the great use of the latter in photography. A thin magnesium wire produces in burning as much light as seventy-four stearine candles, and to continue this light for ten hours, seventy-two grammes—about two ounces and a half—of magnesium must be burnt, corresponding in effect to twenty pounds of stearine candles. A magnesium lamp was exhibited, consisting of a coil of magnesium wire, which was gradually unwound and burnt as it issued from a glass tube. Magnesium wire of a size con- venient for burning is now manufactured by Mr. Sonstadt’s process, and sold at threepence per foot; the combustion of one inch of wire affording sufficient light to take a positive picture with dry collodion. During the lecture a negative of Professor Maraday was taken ; from this a transparent positive was printed by a few seconds exposure, and exhibited on the white screen by the electric lamp. ee OO a ee Notes and Memoranda. 3893 ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.—May 9. A NEWLY-DISCOVERED LOW Pass over THE ANDES IN CHILI, SOUTH or VaLpivia.—Sir Woodbine Parish stated that Sefior Cox had undertaken this remarkable journey with a view to discover an easy route between the new Chilian settlements on the Pacific coast in 40° and 41°S. lat. and the river Negro, which, eighty years ago, had been proved by Villarino, a Spanish explorer, to be navigable from the eastern side of the Andes to the Atlantic. He equipped an expedition at his own cost at Port Montt, a new German settlement, now containing 15,000 inhabitants, near the island of Chiloe, and proceeded in December, 1862, by way of the two lakes, Llanquilhue and Todos-os-Santos, towards the almost unknown inland sea of Naguel-huassi. He traversed the lakes by means of gutta-percha boats, and succeeded in discovering a pass over the Cordillera at an altitude of not more than 2800 feet. Arrived at the end of Lake Naguel-huassi (Lake of Tigers), which lies on the eastern side of the chain of the Andes, Seior Cox’s party found a broad stream issuing from it in the direction of the rivers which flow into the Atlantic. Seven of the sixteen persons who formed the expedition embarked in one of the boats and descended the river, which is called the Limay, and forms one of the affluents of the Rio Negro. The voyage was attended with great risks, owing to the numerous rapids. At length when within five miles of the point to which Villarino had attained in ascending the Rio Negro from the Atlantic, the boat was upset, and the party fell into the hands of a savage tribe of Pampas Indians encamped near the spot. The Cacique at length promised to assist Sefior Cox in reaching the Rio Negro on condition that he first went to Valdivia for presents. The re-crossing of the Cordillera, at a more northerly point, towards Valdivia, was accomplished with- out much difficulty: but the main object of Sefor Cox’s journey, namely, the opening of an easy passage across the Continent has been up to the present time frustrated by the hostility of the Indian tribes. NOTES AND MEMORANDA. Tur SurFace or tHE Sun.—Notwithstanding the statements of the Green- wich astronomers, the question of the rice grains or willow leaves on the solar surface is not considered to be settled. Mr. Wm. Huggins, who is an excellent observer, and possesses a fine telescope, denies that the solar surface consists of an interlacement of elongated particles, definite in shape, and uniform in size. He finds the brighter portions of every imaginable shape, and greatly differing in size. It certainly seems highly improbable that the monotony and uniformity of willow leaves or rice grains should be preserved in the face of a body that is proved by the behaviour of the spots to undergo violent changes. From the Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society (1864, No. 6), it will be seen that Mr, Dawes, who is universally admiited to be one of our finest observers, affirms that ‘the observations of Messrs. Stone and Dunkin have landed them precisely where he was sixteen years ago.” At that time he compared the bright particles scattered almost all over the sun to excessively minute fragments of porcelain ; but he doubted the appearance, and after four years more research, und the 384 Notes and Memoranda. assistance of his own solar eye-piece, which permitted the use of a power of 400 to 600, he arrived at the conviction that the “brilliant objects were merely different conditions of the surface of the comparatively large luminous clouds themselves, ridges, waves, hills, knolls, or whatever else they-might be called, differing in form, in brilliancy, and probably in elevation, and bearing something of the same proportion to the individual luminous clouds that the masses of the bright facule, as seen near the sun’s edge, bear to the whole disc of the sun.” Tuer CoMPANIONS OF Srrivs, TrvE AND Fatsy.—Mr. Dawes states, in Monthly Notices, that he has attained with his 84-inch object-glass distinct views of Alvon Clark’s Companion of Sirius. Angle of position, 84°'86, distance about 10.” Mr. Lassell and Mr. Marth have also observed it at Malta, their measures of position ranged from 78°53 to 80°29, and their distances from 9’"21 to 10”-90. The little star appeared not a very small point, but deficient in briiliancy to Mr. Lassell, and when Mr. Dawes first saw it, he turned round his object-glass and eye-pieces to be certain it was a real star. His measures were only ap- proximate. Mr. Tempel, of Marseilles, has a letter in the Astron. Nachrichten, detailing his efforts to see the companions observéd by M. Goldschmidt with a telescope of about 4-inches. Mr. Tempel employed one of 48 lines, which he says is a little bigger than M. Goldschmidt’s, and of excellent performance on double stars. With this instrument, after many hours’ observation, he saw three companion stars with magnifications of 40 and 24. He saw them less plainly with 60, and not at all with 80 and upwards. He saw similar appearances near Procyon, Capella, and 8 Orionis; in the latter case, in addition to the true com- anion. Careful experiment satisfied him that the appearances were false, and that Goldschmidt had been deceived in assigning additional companions to Sirius. Sizz anp FiecurEe oF THE HArtu.—The results obtained by our Ordnance Survey exhibit the earth as having an equatorial semi-diameter of 20,927,005 feet, and a polar semi-axis of 20,852,372 feet. The flattening Deine — sae ae Comparing arcs of the meridian measured in Hngland, France, Russia, Prussia, Hanover, Denmark, and India, the Ordnance Survey gives for the average of the globe— Semi-equatorial diameter, 20,926,330 feet. Semi-polar axis . . . 20,855,240 feet. ae Flattening wee 294.36 ? The latter calculations take in the final determinations of the great Russian arc measured by M. Struve. The French metre is thus not, as was supposed, ex- actly a ten-millionth part of any ascertained quarter of a meridian, nor of an average quarter meridian. Sirxxkworms or THE Oax.—M. Guerin Méneville informs the French Academy that, in addition to three Asiatic silkworms living on the oak, the Bombyx melitta from Bengal, and Bombyx Pernii from N. China, and Bombyx Yama-Mai from Japan, he is trying to naturalize a fourth, the Bombyx Roylei, from the Himalayas, on the borders of Cashmere. On the 28rd March he received 20 cocoons. At first only males were produced, but on the 19th April he obtained a male and female moth, the latter laying 108 eggs, M. Méneyille thinks it will be easy to rear these silkworms in Central and Northern France. Functions or THe CrrepritumM.—Dr. Dickinson states that experiments with reptiles and fish show that,the cerebrum by itself is unable to give more than a limited amount of voluntary motion, and that of a kind deficient in balance and adjustment. If the cerebellum only be removed from fishes, there is a loss of the proper adjustment between the right and left sides, so that oscillation or rotation takes place. All the limbs are used, but apparently with a deficiency of sustained activity. From the negative results of experiments it is inferred that the cerebellum has nothing to do with common sensation, with the sexual pro- pensity, with the action of the involuntary muscles, with the maintenance of animal heat, or with secretion, ‘Lhe voluntary muscles are under a double in- fluence, from the cerebrum and the cerebellum. The anterior limbs are Notes and Memoranda. 385 chiefly under the influence of the cerebrum; the posterior of the cerebellum. Cerebellar movements are apt to be habitual, while cerebral are impulsive. The cerebellum acts when the cerebrum is removed, though when both organs exist it is under its control. Proc. Roy. Soc., No. 63. Toning Bath For AtBumMEN Procrss.—In reply to one of our corres- pondents, who has requested us to give a good formula for a toning bath, we select the following out of a great number at present in use, as, in ordinary circumstances, among the most convenient and effective. Place one litre of dis- tilled water, and then two grammes of chloride of gold in No. 1—a bottle with a cork: one litre of distilled water, and then twenty grammes chloride of lime in No. 2—a bottle with a ground-glass stopper: one litre of distilled water, and then five grammes of common salt, in No. 3—a bottle with a cork. All the chloride of lime will not be dissolved; but what remains at the bottom of the bottle will keep the fluid saturated, which is necessary :—before being used the required quantity of it must be filtered. ‘The toning bath is made as follows :— To one litre of distilled water is added 60cc of the fluid in bottle No. 1, 20ce of that in No. 2, and 15cc of that in No. 3. The mixture should be limpid, and either colourless or of a light yellow tinge. It must be used at once, as it will not keep. According to the time during which the proofs are immersed in it, the shade will vary from some tint of blue to a deep black: a dark violet being pro- duced in moderate weather in about twenty minutes—in cold weather a longer time will be required. The whites will be beautifully bleached by the free chlorine. A litre of this mixture will tone about 70 cartes de visite. They must be moved about in it, and occasionally taken out, and replaced. The quantity required for any number of proofs of any size may be easily calculated. HaRTHQUAKE In SussEx.—On the 30th April a shock was felt in several places in Sussex, Lewes included. The strongest effect is reported to have been felt at Chailey. A lady at Lewes heard a noise like hail shortly after midnight (81st). At Fletching the people supposed a gunpowder explosion had occurred. ; Contcat Hart.—M. J. A. Barral describes to the French Academy some hailstones that fell in Paris on the 29th March, 1864. They were of conical shape, slightly concave at the base, and fell point downwards. The cones were eight or ten millimétres in diameter at the base, and ten to thirteen millimétres high. They seemed to be formed by the adhesion of small pyramids, leaving a little hollow inside. Grest Crocopite or THE OorrtE.—M. A. Valenciennes exhibited to the French Academy on the 11th April a fossil crocodile tooth found in the Oolite, near Poitiers. From its size he estimated the animal to have been one hundred feet long. This creature must not be confounded with the megalosaurus. CoMPaRING THE LicutT oF Stars.—In Comptes Rendus for the 11th April M. Chacornac describes a method of mounting a plane mirror so as to bring into the field of a telescope the image of one star, while the telescope receives directly the light of another. By this means the two images are brought into simul- taneous view, the one of course less brilliant than it should be, through loss of light in reflection. He gives the calculations necessary to work out the comparison. Sirius he finds to be five times as bright as Arcturus. He is able to work by this method upon stars from 20° to 160° apart. When seen simultancously, Arcturus looks orange red, and Sirius has a slight green tint. Tur Morn or tHe OrpraL Bran—Insensipiuity To Porson.—Dr. Fraser shows in the Annals of Natural History that the caterpillar of Deiopeia pulchella can eat the poisonous ordeal bean of Calabar with impunity, and is in the habit of boring holes in it. This caterpillar is readily killed with hydrocyanic acid, while the Anthonomas druparum can live upon the kernel of the Prunus cerasus that contains it. Grarrina Anrmats,—Dr. Paul Bert has published a work on the curious subject of animal grafts. He succeeded in making Siamese twins of a couple of rats, and in many other monstrosities. He exclaims, ‘‘it is a surprising spectacle to see a paw cut from one rat live, grow, finish its ossification, and regenerate its 386 Notes and Memoranda. nerves, under the skin of another, and when we plant a plume of feathers under the skin of a dog, what a miracle to see the interrupted vital phenomena resume their course, and the fragment of a bird receive nourishment from the blood of a mammal.” sg Formation or Tu1ck Icr.—M. Lucien de la Rive has recently read an elaborate paper on the Conductibility of Heat by Ice, before the Sorieté le- Physique and d’Histoire Naturelle de Genéve, which is reprinted in the Archives des Sciences. In this essay he enters, amongst other things, on the time required to form thick masses of polar ice by gradual freezing of the water touching their lower surfaces. One metre in thickness would, he states, require 1:42 years, 10 metres 142 years, 100 metres, 14,200 years, 200 metres, 56,800 years. The huge masses seen by Scoresby and others, having a probable thickness of 200 metres, may have grown by snow falling on their upper surfaces; but if it were possible to determine by difference of structure what portion resulted from this cause, and what was produced by additions from below, the time consumed in the formation of the latter might be computed according to the formule which M. de la Rive gives. Viewine TapprotE CrrcuLation.—Those who are not familiar with the best arrangements for this purpose should consult Mrs. Ward's excellent Microscope Teachings. All but the very youngest tadpoles are too thick for the live box; older ones may be placed, as in Mrs. Ward’s sketch, onaslide, and partly covered with a little tuft of wet cotton wool, They will generally be quiet enough without tying down. When the gill circulation is to be viewed, the cotton should be placed over the tail, and when the gills have disappeared, and the tail circulation becomes a beautiful spectacle, the cotton should be placed over the creature’s head and body. Curr ror Hoorina Covau.—The Courier du Pas du Calais mentions seve- ral instances of the cure of hooping cough by inhalation of the vapours evolved by the lime used in purifying coal-gas. It affirms that two or three visits to the gas-works have usually proved sufficient. Mr. Guatsuer’s 181m Ascent took place on the 6th of April, at 4°7 p.m., from Woolwich Arsenal. The sky was overcast at starting, and had been so all day, wind §.E. The balloon crossed the river into Essex ; at 500 feet elevation the air was very misty, and increased in density as the balloon rose; at 2000 feet wind was SW. or WSW.; at 2500 feet dense white cloud; at 3500 feet thin rain; at 4000 feet clouds less dense, and increase of light; at 4500 feet sun seen faintly ; at 5100 feet the sun cast a faint shadow, but cloud continued up to 6500 feet ; the air was still misty, and after reaching 8100 feet mist increased till the height of 9000 feet ; at 9500 feet bright sunshine, and it was quite warm. At 10,000 feet Mr. Glaisher says, ‘We were quite out of the cloud, and there wasa sea of white cloud, dazzling in its brightness, extending without break or irregularity in its surface as far as we could see all around, that is, for more than 100 miles on all sides ; near to us on the cloud on the side opposite the sun was a bright oval halo of immense extent, in the centre of which was situated the sha- dow of the balloon and car, but without prismatic colours. This all appeared to revolve with us, for it was constant, and we knew we were turning round by the sun now shining on our backs and then in our faces. At the greatest eleva- tion, 11,000 feet, there was perfect repose, the sky was without a cloud, of a beau- tiful deep blue.” The temperature on leaving was 46°; at 1000 feet, 414°; at 1500 feet, 40°; at 2000 feet, 37°; at 3000 feet, 32°; from 3500 to 4000 feet, no variation from 33°; at 5000 feet temperature rose to 36°; at 8000 feet, 40°; at 9000 feet, 34° ; between 10,000 and 11,000 feet, 46°. In descending, the highest temperature was at 8000 feet, 46°, at that elevation it is usually 30° to 40° lower than on the earth. Within two miles of the earth totally opposite currents were found, No ozone was detected. PENIS ™ 1. ‘2B bil \\ yy WY ges a SSS Sar y) \) ete Sages Pts ELLIS TS) P, H. Gosse, ad viv. HAIRY-BACKED ANIMALCULES., naetonotide:, 1, Cheetonotus larus, crawling on a thread of Conferva; 2, in the act of turning ; if 3, viewed from above, 4, C. toaximns; 6, the mouth and oculiform specks, more — highiy magnitied 6. O squammats, 7, C. Slackie, 8, C. gracilis, | 17, Yaphrocaropa annulosa, viewed from above; 13, viewed from the eft side; 1), ideal transverse section. “i 4 AS FE. i SO" ie Cee) Son a Os oN co - AAW rn P_ Ti. Gosse, ad viv. HAIRY-BACKHD ANIMALCULES, Cheetonotide. 9, Dasydytes gomiathrix, viewed from above; 10, viewed from the right side; 11, viewed from the front; 12, one of the bristles greatly magnified./ 43, D. antenniger; 11, the caudal pencils more highly magnified. 5, Cursanella hyalina, (after Schulze.) 16, Bchinodera Dwiardin, (after Dujardin.) N.B.—All the figs., except 5, 12, and 14, are moagnified 30) diam., and all, except 15 and 16, are from the life. PLATH ii} " THE INTELLECTUAL OBSERVER, JULY, 1864. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HATRY-BACKED ANIMALCULES (CHAITONOTID). BY PHILIP HENRY GOSSE, F.R.S. (With Two Plates.) Wuoever has been in the habit of collecting the floccose matter that accumulates around the submerged stems of aquatic plants, or the impalpable sediment that les at the bottom of still pools and running ditches, and of examining the same in the live- boxes of his microscope, is aware how abundant and how various are the forms of life that are presented to his view. Creatures the most strange and the most incongruous—odd in their shapes, odd in their structure, odd in their manners, odd in their movements, swim, or rotate, or creep, or wriggle over the field of vision, till the little pellet of brown mud, no bigger than a grain of duck-shot, flattened out before him, proves a complete microcosm. Many such pellets will not have passed under the eye of the curious observer before he will pretty certainly have become familiar with a little creature of attrac- tive appearance and lively manners, which forms the typical representative of alimited group of animals, whose family name I have set at the head ofthis article. Dr. Ehrenberg, of Ber- lin, named it the Bristle-fish (Chetonotus), both of which appellations allude to the long and stout bristles with which its back is beset in rows. Its movements are not so rapid as those of many animalcules, and therefore it affords a fair object for the young microscopist, while its form is so peculiar as to be easily recognized. When enclosed in an aquatic live-box, it is fond of crawling on the surface of the glass cover, whereby we distinctly see the ventral surface, as we sce the lateral form when it creeps about the stems. The form, when seen ver- tically, is somewhat fish-like, with a thick, blunt, and rather triangular head, and a slight constriction or neck; a swelling body, terminating in two diverging points. ‘The figure, when VOL. V.—NO. VI. i DD 388 History of the Hairy-backed Animalcules. seen sidewise, reminds one of that of a ferret, the back being much arched (Plate i. Fig. 1). The whole body appears covered with hairs, which are set in rows ; those on the front part are smaller and closer, those on the back larger and fewer. The fore-part, seen from beneath, presents an appearance of hatch- ing or cross lines running diagonally, or else of dots set in ~ quincunx, which I suppose are the bases of the hairs growing in such an arrangement. The internal structure is not usually discernible ; for though the body is pellucid and colourless, and often lustrous from the refraction of the light, especially through the neck, the number of hairs which stud the surface prevent a clear sight of the interior. Two bands, which run down the belly, are understood to be bands of cilia. There is a certain nimbleness and sprightliness in the motions of this pretty animal as it crawls, frequently turning short on itself and changing its course (see Fig. 2), examining various objects, much like a caterpillar does, with apparent intelligence. I shall return to this species again for fuller details; but this general description will help the reader better to understand the group ~ of which I propose to treat. The form appears to have been recognized in the earliest re- cords of microscopic observation; for Joblot, nearlya century and a half ago, described an animalcule, which was probably enough this very creature, under the title of “ Poisson a téte tréflée.” I say “ probably,’ because an approwimation to the general outline of such minute creatures was all that, with their very imperfect instruments, the early observers could accomplish. About sixty years later Miiller, the great Danish zoologist, and the first who attempted to define and arrange the host of micro- scopic animalcules that were crowding upon observers, de- scribed under two names—Cercaria podura and T'richoda larus —what may have been two species of the same family, or one. The two specific names have, however, been adopted in modern nomenclature, as representing two distinct creatures, the latter being appropriated to the one I have described; though on what account he applied the name larus, which signifies a gull, to it, | cannot conjecture, Passing by other observers, who have recorded nothing more worthy of note concerning the form, than that they recognized it, we come to Ehrenberg, who, in his valuable papers in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy for 1831, and afterwards in his notable work Die Infusions- thierchen, determined the two genera, Ichthydiwm and Cheto- notus, for the two species described by Miller, adopting his specific names, and added two more species to the latter genus, , The great Prussian zoologist included these creatures among the Rotirura, uniting with them in the same group two other History of the Hawy-backed Animalcules. 389 genera, which have no real affinity with them, his system of arrangement being artificial, and therefore, necessarily, in some cases, unnatural.* M. Dujardin, in 1841, described another species, which he named Ch. squammatus, and rejecting Hhrenberg’s arrangement, united the then known forms with others, with which they have no more affinity, and placed the heterogeneous group among the Infusory animalcules by the name of Symmetrical Infusoria. His ground for the change is thus expressed :—“ The Ichthy- dina, according to M. Hhrenberg, ought to have a rotatory organ, simple, continuous, with an entire margin ; but, in fact, the vibratile cilia of the ventral surface of the Chetonotes do not at all constitute a rotatory organ.” + Ten years later, the same zoologist described another form (Plate u. Fig. 16) under the title of Hchinodera,t apparently allied to the same group ; to which, however, he now assigned a higher place, viz., intermediate between Crustacea and Vermes. He believes that this is “a type differmg from the Helminthes acanthocéphales, the Systolides | Rotifera], the Hnto-_ mostraca Oopepoda | Cyclops, etc.| and the Sipuncles, yet at the same time offering points of resemblance to each of these. It is a sort of Copepode without feet, with the mouth of a Sipun- culus, and the neck of an Hehinorhynchus, and a muscular cesophagus like those of the Systolides, the Tardigrades, and the Nematoid Helminthes.” M. Perty§ and Herr Vogt|| concur in the exclusion of the Cheetonotide from the Rottrmra; the former, however, has not ventured to assign them any definite position, while the latter associates them with the Planarioid worms (‘T'URBELLARIA). * Tt is the fashion to depreciate and decry Ehrenberg., I have no sympathy with those who, taking their stand upon the ground which he has cleared with incredible labour and genius, can assume airs of pity or contempt when they dis- cern inconsistencies or defects in his system. Many years’ study of the Rotifera has enabled me in some measure to appreciate the gigantic labours of the Prussian microscopist, and to compare them with those of his successors and critics. I take, for example, Dujardin’s Hist. des Infusotires, and have no hesitation in asserting that this work does not manifest one-fourth part of the real actual acquaintance with the subjects treated, that is possessed by Ehrenberg’s great work. Corrections and improvemeuts in some points cannot fail to be pointed out by those who begin where the Prussian left off; and the advance of science, and the improvement of the microscope itself, have, of course, made antiquated and displaced many of his statements and conclusions; but, looking at microscopic zoology as it was when Ehrenberg took it up, and as it was when he laid it down, I think it not too much to say that he stands in the foremost ranks of the scientific army, side by side with such names as Aristotle, Linneus, and Cuvier, and that his Die Infusionsthierchen is 1 monument to his fame, wre perennius, and such as few indeed have been able to erect. + Hist. des Infus., p. 569. é _ f Annal. d. Sei. Nat. 1851. The name is erroneously spelled “ Ellimoderia” in the 4th Ed. of Pritchard’s Infusoria, p. 380. ; § Zur Kenntniss kleinster Lebens formen || Zoologische Briefe, 390 History of the Hairy-backed Animalcules. Dr. Max Schulze, describing yet another genus, Turbanella (Pl. 11. Fig. 15), m 1853,* took occasion to institute an elaborate examination of the structure of the whole group, augmented by all these discoveries. He considers that it does without doubt fall within the great circle of Vurmus, though there is some_ difficulty in determining in which class to place it. Its union with the Rorrrera he judges impossible: 1, because of the ab- sence of the vibratory organs around the mouth, so characteristic of that class ; 2, because muscles, nerves, and water-vessels— organs which are wanting in no true Rotifera—have not been found in this group; 3, because of the absence of a caudal ex- tremity, furnished with articulated members; and 4, because of the peculiar cilia with which the ventral surface is clothed in the Chetonotes. Turbanella shows traces of a division into segments in the separation of the head from the rest of the body, in the ring of cilia which surrounds the head, and in the position of the almost regularly recurring lateral processes, and thus reminds us, in its ciliation and its obscure articulation, of several states of development of the true AnnuLipa. I may add, that the Hchinodera of Dujardin, and my own curious genus, Taphrocampa (Figs. 17—19), presently to be described, carry this appearance of segmentation still further, and, pro tanto, strengthen the grounds of affinity with the AnnpLIDA. Dr. Schulze cites the analogy of certain Annelida, which possess, even in the adult condition, a ciliated skin. Polyoph- thalmus (Quatref.) has a ciliary head-veil, not unlike that of the Rotifera. The genus Spio is provided, according to Oersted (confirmed by Schulze’s own observations), with ciliated gill- leaves ; its two long frontal cirri are also ciliated, and so are the pair of longer appendages, which, seated on the second seg- ment, project at right angles from the body, as noticed in a species found at Cuxhaven. . The claim of the TursnLiarta to afford a refuge for these strangers, which, like homeless paupers passed from parish to parish, are found so difficult to settle, is next brought under review. All the Vortex-worms havea ciliated covering, spread entirely and uniformly over the body ; their skin is soft and melting ; their digestive canal is destitute of a firm envelope, and is separated from the soft parenchyme of the body only by its wall, formed of peculiar digestive cells, or hepatic cells. Muscle-threads, the central portion of a nervous system, and water-vessels, are recognized in all these worms.t In Che- * Archiv f. Anat. Physiol., etc, 1853, p. 241, et seq. + “In Microstomum lineare, in which neither Oskar Schmidt nor I could for- merly discover any trace of a water-vascular system, I have lately recognized such, furnished with very small tremulous tags, and also distinct muscle-threads,”— Note by Dr. Schulze. ' j \ . History of the Hairy-backed Animalcules. 391 tonotus and Turbanella the skin is not melting, but capable of resisting, to some extent, cold potass solution. It is ciliated only on the ventral surface, and, in the former genus, only on a portion even of this. The ring of cilia which surrounds the head of Turbanella, and the muscular coat of the alimentary canal of the Cheetonotes generally, sharply defined against the parenchyme of the body, especially in the anterior third, are conditions unknown among the Turbellaria ; while the motory muscles, nerve-threads, and water-vessels common to them, have not been recognized in those. Yet Dr. Schulze judges that a certain relationship between the Chetonotide and the TURBELLARIA is not to be mistaken: 1, because of their inarti- culate body, in. size and form resembling the little Vortex- worms; 2, because of the absence of any other locomotive organs than skin-cilia, by means of which, though covering only one half of the body, the animals yet proceed with a soft gliding motion, like that of the Vortex-worms; 5, because the absence of muscles, nerves, and. vessels is approached by the obscure - condition and receding development of these organs in many of the more minute Rhabdocela and Microstomata. Thus there seems here a closer affinity than with the ANNELIDA. Difficulties, however, beset the attempt to assign to the Cheetonotide their natural place in the class TurBettaria. The Dendrocela and the Rhyncocela are at once excluded; the former consisting of animals of superior size, furnished with a ramified intestine without an anal orifice ; the latter having, in- deed, a straight intestine, provided with an anus, but invariably possessing a protrusile proboscis. There remain the Rhabdo- cela and the Arhynchia.* Both these groups contain small forms, resembling those of the Chetonotide; but the former have an intestine without an anus, and a hermaphodite system of reproduction ; the latter an anal orifice, but a dicecious re- production. Thus the Cheetonotide, hermaphrodite and fur- nished with an anus, cannot, without force, be referred to either. In the Tursennarts, as in the Vermes generally, those cha- racters which are drawn from the form of the alimentary canal have a higher systematic signification than such as depend on the condition of the reproductive system. If the Cheetono- tide, then, are to be placed among the Turputrarta, Dr. Schulze would associate them, not with the Rhabdocela, but with the Arhynchia ; which would include the Microstomata and Dino- philus as dicecious, the Ohcetonotidee as moncecious forms. Finally, this able zoologist, taking into consideration all the facts recorded, considers it premature to determine the actual * Vide Schulze’s Beitr. z, Naturg. d. Turbellarien. 392 History of the Hairy-backed Animalcules. relation of the family in question. Assigning to them a pro- visional place among the TuRBELLARIA, as just indicated, he admits that further investigations of the anatomy of this little examined group may bring to light relations hardly suspected ; while many forms more or less closely allied may still lurk un- ~ discovered, acquaintance with which may modify our already accepted conclusions. Dujardin’s curious little Hchimodera, and my own equally anomalous Taphrocampa, appear, for example, to widen the distance between the group and the TURBELLARIA ; while, in their more strongly marked segmentation they show a decided approach to the Annelidous forms. Having thus given to the reader an abstract of the views of one of the most learned of Continental zoologists on this obscure group, I proceed to describe all the species as yet recognized in it, premising that I have myself met with some, manifestly belonging to before-unknown genera, and other species which seem irreconcileable with published descriptions and figures of such as had been recognized. These I propose to include. FAMILY CHATONOTIDZ. I think it desirable that the family should be named after the most characteristic and most populous genus,'which is indubit- ably Cheetonotus, and not Ichthydium. It consists of soft- bodied animals microscopically minute, of lengthened form, having a bilateral symmetry, with a more or less distinct separation of the head; the body more or less clothed with vibratory cilia, and for the most part with long hairs; the alimentary canal straight, and furnished with an orifice at each extremity. Inhabitants of fresh-water. | Genus I.—Icurnypium (Ehrenberg). Posterior extremity forked ; body unfurnished with hair. Sp. 1. I. podura (Mill.) This form has been often seen by the early observers, if we can be quite sure that it has not been confounded with Chet. larus. Ehrenberg first certainly defined it, having met with it in Nubia, among conferva from the Nile, and subsequently near Berlin. The body is linear- oblong, with the anterior extremity swollen ; sometimes three- lobed ; often slightly constricted; the hind fork short. The ventral surface is flat, the dorsal arched, and destitute of hair. The largest specimens have not the least vestige of hair on the back. ‘Tho animal is colourless or whitish, but sometimes tinged with yellow, through the distension of the wide intes- tine. A longitudinal band of cilia was in one specimen clearly seen by Ehrenberg, along the belly, but in other individuals, History of the Hairy-backed Animaleules. 399 though of large size, he could not with the utmost care discern it directly, though he saw a distinct rotation at the mouth. It swims more rarely than it crawls. Our specimen showed, in the hinder part of the thick body, a large dark egg, well developed. , This species appears to be rare; I have not myself met with it, nor have I noticed any record of its occurrence since the publication of Hhrenberg’s observations. Genus I].—Cuztonorus (Hhr.). Posterior extremity forked; body clothed with hair. Sp. 2. C. larus (Miull.) (Pl. i. Figs. 1—3.) This is the most commonly observed species of the whole family, being very frequently met with among duckweed, conferva, and other aquatic vegetation. It is of moderate dimensions, as compared ‘with others, ranging from 1-400th to 1-200th of an inch in length. Its body is not quite four times as long as broad; the head is roundish or obscurely triangular, passing insensibly into the thick neck which separates it from the swelling ab- domen. The posterior extremity is deeply forked, the two divergent toes tapering to points, which are sometimes obtuse. Ehrenberg distinguishes the species by its having the hairs on the hinder portion of the back longer than those on the fore part; and in this distinction L concur with him, the specimens that I have seen possessing the character strongly marked, sometimes excessively. These long hairs are few, and spring out of a dense coat of short hair, which clothes the whole body, but most thickly behind. Probably this is what M. Dujardin refers to when he remarks that “ looking at it in profile we recognize that the back is covered with asperities from be- tween which the long straight hairs spring.’ * No one that Tam aware of has remarked a curious circumstance, that the sides of the head are furnished (Fig. 3) with some very long slender hairs, which stand out laterally, diverging, curving slightly forward, like the whiskers of a cat. I have observed the animal frequently bend and straighten them rapidly, near the tips, one independently of another, with a movement very different from an ordinary ciliary vibration. A strong ciliary current is produced on each side, by which floating atoms are’ drawn towards the head, and then rapidly hurled about half- way down the body. Vigorous ciliary currents are seen to pass along the inferior surface of the neck: I have not often been able to define these as forming two bands, though occa- sionally they are traceable, reaching nearly as far as the bottom of the posterior cleft, and then turning abruptly up and run- ' ® Hist. d. Infusoires, p. 570. Seo, however, infra, under Das. antenniger. 394 History of the Hairy-backed Animalcules. ning forward along the sides. The mouth appears to me oval, minute, slightly protrusile; Ehrenberg describes it as a tube furnished with eight teeth. It leads mto a gullet with very thick transparent walls, and a very slender perforation, which, - at about one-third the total length of the animal, enters a © straight imtestine, of equal diameter with the gullet-wall. This, as I have seen it, has been generally colourless, loosely filled with irregular clear masses, and apparently terminating at a curved transverse line, considerably above the fork.. This line is doubtless the outline of the swollen arched back, and marks the position of the cloaca, which, as is frequently the case, is visible only at the instant of its function, Hhrenberg has induced the digestive organs to receive indigo. The same observer has frequently seen a large developed egg contained in the ovary, which occupies the arched cavity of the abdomen, situate over (that is, more towards the back) the intestine. The egg is about one-third as long as the whole animal. I have seen the reproductive system in an inactive condition, merely as clear, refracting viscera of large size, and irregular shape, lymg in the abdominal cavity, occasionally extending forward to the neck. On one occasion I am pretty sure that I saw, for a portion of its length, a tortuous water-vessel, run- ning down one side. (See Fig. 3.) The movements of this little animal are smooth and grace- ful, a sort of gliding or creeping over the water-plants ; rarely swimming. Once I saw a Paramecium come blundering up against an unsuspecting Cheetonotus, who instantly doubled his pace as if frightened, but soon recovered his equanimity. Mr. Slack says, that among threads of conferva or decayed vegetation, he has observed it grope about, and shake them like a dog. (See Marvels of Pond Life, p. 84; where are two excellent figures of the species, and some interesting notes of its manners.) Sp. 3. C. maximus (Hhr.) (Pl. i. Figs. 4 and 5). This is about twice the size of the preceding, measuring from 1-120th to 1-200th of an inch. The body is lengthened, shghtly con- stricted, with the head turgid and obtusely triangular; the hairs on the upper surface short and equal. Such is Ehren- berg’s definition of the species, who adds that the mouth is furnished with about eight feeble teeth (possibly papille). The distribution of the bristles in one he observed in distinct longi- tudinal rows; in another the arrangement appeared irregularly diagonal. A single egg is developed at once, greatly dilating the dorsal region of the abdomen, which Ehrenberg saw dis- charged by the cloaca above the foot-fork ; he saw the germ- vesicle distinctly. Dr. Schulze suggests the possibility that this species and History of the Hairy-backed Animaleules. 395 C. larus may be identical; but surely without good reason. He has added a good deal to our knowledge of its minuter anatomy ; in particular he does not find the bristles of equal length, but longest on the back and hind end ; and states that each is a pointed spine furnished with two minute subordinate spines, one springing on each side of its base. These spines are processes of the skin, not hairs inserted into it; but they are dissolved by potass more readily than the skin itself. The belly surface is quite destitute of spines, but it is uniformly clothed on the anterior half with short cilia, which on the pos- terior half are ranged in two bands along the edge, uniting above the fork. The median line of the belly is clothed with a row of short stiff down lying backwards. The mouth, surrounded by eight or ten long, soft, and immoveable slender hairs, is formed by a circular membrane, either finely plaited, or beset with minute prominences (‘‘teeth”’ HKhr.), protrusile, in the form of a short tube. Schulze recog- nizes the great egg with its germ-vesicle, and adds that it 1s covered with a shell, which potass does not dissolve. He also finds in front of the ovary a cellular spermatic gland, and two groups of spermatozoa; but fails to detect any trace of nerves, muscles, water-vessels, or tremulous tags. In August, 1851, I found in a dyke near Stratford a very large Cheetonotus, which I am disposed to refer to this species. Tis length was 1-70th of an inch, its greatest width 1-400th (but including the bristles 1-300th) ; length of the toes 1-580th. The dimensions, equal to those of a full-grown Notommata aurita, rendered it distinctly visible to the naked eye, and marked it from all others known to me. It was equally marked by its dense coat of rigid, spinous bristles, set all over the body on the upper surface and sides, and which are longer towards the hinder parts. The toes are small, slender, slightly knobbed and incurved ; they can be made to approach, and even to cross each other. On the anterior half of the body the bases of the bristles are evidently set in quincunx in about eight rows visible; the spots are very distinct and strong. On the pos- terior half, the increased length and decumbency of the bristles cause a brown opacity and roughness ; through which, however, the cylindrical intestine can be seen by focussing. The head is but slightly lobed, and the neck scarcely at all constricted. The mouth consists of a short tube, evidently protrusile, with a dark oval speck at the bottom in the centre, where a straight slender tube originates, and passes through a wide cylindrical cesophagus to the intestine, the head of the latter embracing its fundus. On the front and at each side of the head are very delicate curved hairs like vibrissee. Just below the lower edge of the mouth are placed two minute hooked organs, the 396 History of the Hairy-backed Animalcules. end of which seem thickened and are bent downwards. Oval. clear specks, one on each side of the face, may be eyes. (See Fig. 5.) The manners were much like those of the rest of the genus. It was restless, crawling impatiently among the little masses of ~ sediment, frequently turning itself double, and sometimes coil- ing almost into a circle ; perpetually shortening and lengthen- ing the head, protruding the mouth, and searching with the fore part, like a caterpillar. It sometimes swam briskly. A much smaller individual, from the same dyke, had the bristles much fewer; they were, however, very coarse, and rigid and curved. A row of fine close-set vibrating cilia run along the side besides the bristles. I think it was a young one of the same species. In a specimen recently dead, and lying on its side, 1 saw the lateral form of the mouth, and the traces of tooth-like strize that surround it. I saw no bristles along the belly line, but _ they covered the whole sides. Certain irregular lines may pos- sibly have been folds of the skin. The intestine was decurved, and terminated considerably short of the fork; it appeared to have a distinct portion at its anterior end, separated by a dia- phragm. The toes were decurved. I did not notice the pecu- liar structure of the bristles observed by Schulze, but cannot affirm that it was not present. Sp.4. C. brevis (Hhr.). This is characterized by its minute perso, being only 1-430th of an inch in length, and by its having several eggs developed simultaneously, which are proportionally smaller. A doubtful species, and one which has not, I believe, been recognized by any other observer. Sp. 5. C. squammatus (Dy.) (Pl i. Fig. 6.) The hairs enlarged in the manner of scales, regularly imbricated, distin- guish this species. M. Dujardin found it in January 1840, in a bottle of fresh water which he had kept for more than a year, having brought it originally from Paris to Toulouse.* On the upper surface it appears clothed with scales ranged in seven longitudinal rows, but on a side view these are seen to be the bases of short hairs which cover all the back, and even the forked foot. ‘The mouth appeared surrounded by four or five papille, only occasionally visible. The vibratory cilia of the ventral surface are very long, especially on the anterior portion. In 1850 I found what I presume to be this species, in a tub of water exposed in my garden for the propagation of Roti- fera. A description, made at the time, without any knowledge of Dujardin’s observations, I subjoin. Length 1-170th of an ' ¥ Pritchard (Jnfus. 4th Ed, p. 662) by mistake says “sea water from Tou- ouse. History of the Hairy-backed Animalcules. 397 -inch. In form this resembles O. larus, being rather broad in proportion to the length. At first sight the body seems quite smooth, but on bending strongly to either side, it is seen to be clothed with hair, as it were agglutinated in locks, like human hair wetted ; for these locks then separate. ‘The outline of the head is slightly five-lobed, and on each side of the face there are several long slender bristles diverging laterally, like the whiskers of a cat. Along the ventral surface run two rows of vibratile cilia, extending the whole length ; they appear to be longest near the front. I distinctly saw them in vibration throughout, and the motion communicated by them to the floating atoms was strong and conspicuous; these, however, were hurled backwards longitudinally only, with no trace of vortices. The mouth, cesophacus, and alimentary canal do not differ from those of the next species; but the surface of the body presents something peculiar; it appears to be thrown into a number of transverse or annular wrinkles, possibly produced by the arrangement of the hair in locks. On.the front third a number of transversely oblong dark spots are seen, arranged quincuncially with much regularity ; their nature I could not determine, unless they also be divisions of the matted masses of hair; they are certainly not spots of positive colour. The whole animal is colourless; the mtestine was granular, but appeared empty ; it would not imbibe carmine. No reproduc- tive organs were discernible. The forked toes are blunt at the tips; they are sometimes widely separated ; that they are soft was manifest when one was bent by pressure against the glass, as the animal turned. It possesses the power of con- traction and elongation to a slight extent; in the former the transverse wrinkles become more distinct, and the animal becomes shorter and broader. My specimen was very active, crawling nimbly, and swimming with much swiftness, but in an unsettled wandering manner. The body is very flexible, frequently turning so short as to be bent double. Sp. 6. C. Slackize (Gosse). (Platei. Fig. 7.) This undescribed species I venture to dedicate to alady, to whose facile and ele- gant pencil microscopists are so much indebted for the beautiful and truthful delineations of The Marvels of Pond Life. I ob- tained it in January, 1851, from the sediment of the garden-tub already alluded to. Its length was 1-135th of an inch; its greatest breadth 1-600th. The proportions are nearly those of C. larus, but the outline of the head is the half of a short ellipse, without lobes, and it passes, with an abruptangle, into the neck, which is Somewhat more slender in proportion to the body than in the species just named. This form of the head gives a peculiar aspect to the physiognomy, and is the first appearance of a 398 History of the Hairy-backed Animalcules. character which is more marked in the following species, and more strongly still in the genus Dasydytes. The upper surface of the body is conspicuously studded with quincuncial dots, the optical effect of what I judge to be tubercles or warts so arranged, from which, perhaps, the hairs sprig. (In the en- graying I have not indicated this reticulation, that I might dis- play more clearly some important particulars of the internal anatomy.) The back and sides are clothed with very fine hair of only moderate length, which is directed backwards. I did not detect any trace of facial vibrissee. The mouth is rather larger than usual, abruptly narrowed behind. The cesophagus is of the normal form, a cylinder with very thick transparent walls, centrally pierced by a slender tube. I was surprised to observe that the cesophagus did not embrace the mouth, but appeared to commence just behind it, by a peculiarity of structure not easy to explain (perhaps a sudden dip or angle carrying it out of focus, though in incessant manipulation, such a circumstance could scarcely have been undetected), apparently with a depressed centre, where the medial perforation began. (See Fig. 7.) Imbedded in the exterior wall of this viscus, on each side of its summit, was a minute oval dot, well defined, which at times appeared to have positive colour, and which reminded me of the eye-specks of Rotifera. At the posterior extremity of this perforated viscus (which in ignorance we call the esophagus), about one-fourth of its length, having a vaulted figure, seemed separated by a delicate bounding line from the rest. The posterior extremity was slightly excavated, and seated upon the correspondingly convex summit of the intestine,—another deviation from the normal condition, in which the intestine embraces the cesophagus ina hollow. On each side of the summit of the intestine an oval clear vesicle was seated, having the appearance, situation, and doubtless function, of those glands which, in almost all Rotifera, we assume to be pancreatic. But the most interesting result of examination was the in- dubitable discovery of a water-system on the plan of that of the Rotifera. Serpentine vessels ran along each side of the body- cavity (two visible on one side, one only on the other), which could be traced very distinctly (especially when the animal bent itself laterally) nearly to the fork, and in front to the occiput, where each ended in a clavate bulb. Immediately in front of this pair of bulbs, but not having any visible connection with them, were two globular vesicles, which refracted the light strongly, and were probably filled with some fluid. These were not distinct in the same focus that defined the minute eye-like specks, and hence must have been in the opposite (ventral) region of the head-cavity. After a while, one only of ee ee eo History of the Hairy-backed Animateules. 399 these could be found, the other having vanished. Are they, then, contractile vesicles? The other viscera presented nothing remarkable. Sp. 7. C. gracilis (Gosse). (Pl. i. Fig. 8.) This elegant species, which [ obtained from a pond near Leamington, in July, 1850, is remarkable for the slenderness of its form, which is not broader than that of C. larws, while it is about twice its length. ‘The head is dilated at the occiput, where it is abruptly joined to the narrow neck, somewhat triangular, divided into five well-marked rounded lobes, and fringed on each side with laterally-diverging straight hairs. In the middle of the frontal lobe is pierced the mouth, which is of the same form as in C. Slackie, with slightly protrusile lips. The cesophagus is of the ordinary form, but its anterior extremity is conterminous with the front of the head, with no such structure, and no such accessories as are seen in the species just named. Its length is unusual, for it extends nearly to the middle of the body, where, just before it enters the intestine, the thick muscular wall suddenly narrows, till it seems commensurate with the tube itself. ‘The intestine is concave at its commencement, or rather, perhaps, it is furnished with a pancreatic gland on each side, which, as is frequently the case in the Rotifera, is poimted and ear-like. ‘This suggestion, however, rests merely on the form; for I have not detected any bounding line between the points and the intestine, nor was their substance clear, but densely filled, as was that viscus, with finely granular matter. The rounded termination, marking doubtless the position of the cloaca, is on the descent of the back, some distance in front of the foot-fork. I was not able to discern any internal organs besides the alimentary canal, though the opacity caused by the hairs was much less than usual. The anterior half of the body shows the bases of the hairs, like very delicate dots set in quincunx. The sides and back are armed with fine bristles curving backwards. The points of the foot-fork are slender, sub-cylindrical, and slightly dilated at the lips, which are decurved. The animal crawls impatiently about, apparently seeking for food; for I several times saw it eagerly snap at a Monad, that roamed near, opening the mouth at the same moment. Once I believe I saw it seize and swallow the prey, though as it was the work of an instant, I could not be quite certain. I have obtained but one specimen of this species. Genus IT].—Dasypyrus (Gosse). Head distinct: posterior extremely simple, truncate; body furnished with hair. 400 History of the Hairy-backed Animalcules. Sp. 8. D. goniathrix (Gosse). (Pl. ii. Figs. 9—12.) Hairs long, each hair bent with an abrupt angle; neck much constricted. This and the following species I briefly defined, and formed of them the genus Dasydytes, in the Annals of Natural ~- History, for Sept. 1851. The present very remarkable form was obtained from a pool at Leamington, in July of the pre- ceding year. The length of the body is 1-150th of an inch; measured to the tips of the bristles, 1-110th. The head is nearly circular, as wide as the body, without lobes, but ab- ruptly separated from a slender neck. The mouth takes the form of a permanently projecting truncate lip, or short tube. The body is rather slender, swelling toward the hinder part, and tapering to a rounded or truncate point, without any trace of the ordinary forked foot. A most peculiar and bizarre cha- racter is imparted to the creature by its clothing of very long bristles, set along each side of the back, poimting obliquely backward, but apparently wanting along the mesial line, which rises into a ridge. Hach bristle is bent near its tip at an abrupt angle (see Fig. 12), so that it looks as if it had been broken and mended. The front of the head is furnished with long delicate hairs, not geniculate, which form two pencils directed backward, one falling on each side. Strong and con- spicuous vortical currents were produced on each side of the head, like those of the true Rotifera (Fig. 9), and in one speci- men I distinctly saw that they were caused by these frontal pencils of hairs, and that these were very long vibratory cilia. The ventral surface is set with short fine hair, which becomes longer behind (Fig. 10); doubtless cilia of unusual develop- ment, for they produced strong longitudinal backward cur- rents, continued from the frontal vortices. The tube of the cesophagus is always distinct, but the walls are to be discerned only when the animal is flattened by the compressorium. Then it is seen to be fusiform, instead of cylindrical, extending through one-third of the body, where its tube enters a wide cylindrical intestine, with a broad abruptly truncate anterior extremity; of this a short portion is clear, when the remainder is occupied with opaque granular food, and possibly may represent a pancreatic gland of abnormal form, as it embraces the hinder part of the gullet tube, or else is perforate with a similar tube (see Fig. 9). Butin one speci- men this very portion was intensely opaque, while the intes- tine was granular. The cloacal orifice seems to be at the very extremity of the body, as no termination of the intestine, nor even any diminution of its diameter, can be discerned short of that point. On repeated occasions I have seen the act of defecation, in one of which an oval clear. corpuscle was dis- Mistory of the Hawry-backed Animalcules. 401 charged, which, before, as it lay near the extremity of the body, had much puzzled me: it was probably the undissolved envelope of a minute animalcule, which had been devoured. In one specimen, a large very clear viscus of irregular form occupied the widest part of the body, above the intestine, elevating the back into a hump. After some hours this viscus, which at first appeared structureless, developed an egg-cell with its nucleus, thus proving to be the ovary. The entire animal is of a pale smoky colour. It does not crawl like the Chetonotes, but habitually swims swiftly about, keeping, however, near the bottom of the water. Fig. 11 represents an individual as it appeared after it had become sluggish, and apparently dying; it is evidently a view lengthwise along the back, the lower part, or that next the observer, being, I believe, the head. It is valuable as showing the arrangement of the angled hairs. Sp.9. D.antenniger (Gosse). (Pl. u. Figs. 13, 14.) Hairs short, downy; a pencil of long hairs at each angle of the posterior extremity; head furnished with two club-shaped organs resembling antennz. ‘The horse-pond on Hampstead Heath yielded me this species, in August, 1850. It is a little smaller than the preceding, the length being only 1-170th of an inch; but measured to the tips of the hairs, 1-140th. In general figure, and in some particulars of its organization, it appears to diverge less from Chetonotus, than the preceding species does. ‘The head is round, as wide as the body; and there is but little constriction at the neck. The upper surface is covered with short but dense hair pointing backwards, and apparently set im quincunx; the posterior extremity is some- what three-lobed, the middle lobe furnished with a terminal brush of diverging hairs, the outer lobes each bearing a pencil of much longer hairs proceeding from its exterior side, and approaching or crossing the opposite pencil at the tips (Fig. 14). From the front of the head projects the prominent tubular mouth; on each side of which long hairs fall backward as in D. goniathriz, and these, by their vibration, cause a perfect vortex on each side (see Fig. 18), while there is an accessory current also down along the side, and probably all © along the belly. But the most remarkable feature in this species is the presence of a pair of antennz or tentacles ; these are nearly as long as the width of the body, are slightly clubbed, and are placed one on each side of the tubular mouth, whence they spring in a curve forwards and outwards. Near the middle of the head is a little rounded mass, somewhat curdled in appearance, which I take to be a cerebral ganglion. An unusually wide and long csophagus, ventricose behind and permeated by a tube through its centre, leads from the mouth 402 History of the Hairy-backed Animulcules. to a nearly cylindrical intestine. This widens a little in front to embrace the bulbous end of the cesophagus, and extends nearly to the posterior extremity. It was filled with food of a rich uniform green hue, and contained many air-bubbles, especially towards its fore part. On each side of the fore part _ of this viscus, I could indistinctly trace a lengthened slender — body, apparently a tortuous vessel, which on one side seemed to be connected with a small oval clear organ. From the fact that sometimes it was quite plain, while at others I could not discern any trace of it, it may probably have been a con- tractile vesicle. The whole outline of the animal appeared to have a wavy or notched character, indicating a tuberculous surface, as in 0. Slackie, if it was not an optical illusion, and caused by the hairs. This little animal was very active, swimming with much rapidity, and rarely becoming still; when confined in cells. formed by wool-fibres it was most persevering and often suc- cessful in forcing the barriers, by getting its thin flat head under a fibre, and pushing until it forced its body through also. Genus IV.—TourBanex1a (Schulze). Head distinct, surrounded by a ring of cilia; body naked above, clothed with cilia beneath; two rows of bristled pro- cesses along each side ; posterior extremity a broad flat plate with a central division. Sp. 10. T. hyalina (Schulze). (Plu. Fig. 15.) Length 1-60th to 1-48th of an inch; width 1-480th to 1-360th. ‘The body is lengthened, somewhat flat, transparent, colourless ; separated by a strangulation from a rondo-triangular head, which is wholly covered with fine cilia, and bears besides a wreath of strong cilia around its centre. The hinder extremity expands into two hard flat plates, which are indented comb-like on their edge, and are divided in the middle by a sinus, into which opens the cloaca. At nearly regular distances, all along each side of the body, are placed stiff processes of the skin, to the number of twenty to twenty-five, projecting at right angles horizontally ; and above these another row, consisting of six or eight similar processes, inclined backward, making from fifty to seventy in the four rows. Hach process bears at its tip an excessively fine immoveable seta of about its own length. These processes as well as the skin itself were found to be quite soluble in potass, and therefore are not composed of chitine. The alimentary canal runs in a straight line through the whole length. The mouth, opening on the rounded front of the head, and surrounded by a finely-plaited and indented edge, leads into the usual oesophagus with very thick transparent History of the Hairy-backed Animaleules. 408 muscular walls, which terminates at about one-fourth of the body-length. The perforation is so slender as to be detected only while a morsel is in the act of being swallowed. The intestine presents nothing remarkable, except that in its yel- lowish granular wall containing fat-cells, Dr. Schulze thinks he finds a hepatic function. The body-cavity is occupied by a finely-granular, soft parenchyma, the corpuscles scattered in | which are not driven to and fro by the movement of the body, in which therefore a somewhat firm consistence is inferred. No trace of a muscular, nervous, or vascular system was dis- covered, though many individuals were carefully examined. The animal is hermaphrodite. A great ovary lies in the posterior half of the body, over the intestine, in the hinder portion of which are contained the incipient egg-germs, con- sisting of vesicle and speck, which are developed in the anterior portion, becoming surrounded with a granular yelk. Generally one or two eggs are found freed from the ovary, enclosed in a special soft colourless envelope. In front of these mature ova lies the spermatic gland, a mulberry-like mass of cells, and close to it two groups of spermatozoid germ-cells, apparently unenclosed, lying free in the parenchyma. In some examples the spermatozoids were developed, but showed no spontaneous motion. . The specimens described occurred to Dr. Max Schulze in sea-sand from Cuxhaven, with Desmidee and Diatomacec. They swam with a gentle gliding movement, like the Turbel- laria. Genus V.—Ecuinopira (Dujardin). Body articulated; set with few bristles; head distinct ; posterior extremity truncate, with two short processes, and spines. Sp. 11. H. Dujardini (Gosse). (Pl. ii. Fig. 16.) As the discoverer and describer has not assigned any specific name to his animal, I take the liberty of honouring it with his own. M. Dujardin obtained the form in July, 1841, in sea-water from St. Malo, which had been kept for six months. The generic. name, signifying “ spinous neck,” he selected to show its rela- tions with Hehinorhynchus. The body, 0°30 mm. to 0°55 mm. (about 1-75th to 1-50th of an inch) long, is oblong, almost cylindrical in front, a little flattened behind, where it terminates by two great bristles, accompanied by two other bristles of smaller size, like those we see at the extremity of the Oyclo- pide. The body is composed of ten segments, without count- ing the head, which is retractile, bristled with long and flexible spines, and without counting the caudal lamine (lames) which accompany the terminal sete, making the total number of seg- VOL. V.-—NO. VI. EE 404 History of the Hatry-backed Animalcules. ments twelve. The first segment of the body is united to the second by a simple intersection ; all the rest are separated by a horny arch very distinct, presenting three articulations on the plane or ventral face, viz., one answering to the axis, and two lateral, between the edge and the middle. Each segment - encloses the next, and appears laterally armed with two points or spines imbedded in the rear. It is covered, or simply bor- dered with cilia, extremely fine, not vibratile, and very difficult to perceive. Under the first or the second segment, according to the state of retraction of the trunk, we perceive in the interior two red oculiform specks, which pertain to the retractile and pro- tractile portion of the digestive apparatus. To the extremity of this retractile portion extends the cesophagus, longitudinally plaited in the interior, and furnished in front with a coronet of lobes, or teeth, which represent the mouth. The membranous and plaited tube of the cesophagus is covered by a thick mus- cular layer (couche), forming a cylinder 0°035 mm. wide, and 0:092 mm. long, which occupies the 3rd, 4th, and 5th segments of the body, and which, swollen in the middle, takes the form of the pharyngeal bulb of some worms. The stomach, which succeeds, is cylindrical, 0°040 mm. wide, 0°17 mm. long, and contracts itself from the front backward by successive waves : it is invested with a brownish floccose layer, which appears to represent a liver. Finally, a slenderer portion of the intestine occupies the tenth segment, and terminates between the two caudal plates. M. Dujardin has since found it, on repeated occasions, in sea-water, on oyster shells, etc., always with the same form and characters, without ova or genital organs. ‘If I had not seen it,” he remarks, ‘ always alike in vessels preserved more than a year, I might have supposed it the larva of some animal that had escaped my researches. Incomplete, however, as are my observations, after having vainly sought to add to them through ten years, I believe that they suffice to show.a type differing from those of the Helminthes acanthocéphales, the Systolides - or Rotifera, the Entomostraca Copepoda, and the Sipuncles, and at the same time offering points of resemblance to each of these. It is a sort of Oopepode, without feet, with the mouth of a Stpunculus, and the neck of a Bchinorhynchus, and a muscular cesophagus like those of the Systolides (Rotifera), the 'Tardi- grades, and the Nematoid Helminthes.”’ Genus VI,.—Tarurocampa (Cosse). Body articulate, destitute of hair; posterior extremity forked; mouth a mastax, with mallei and incus, which are incurved, History of the Hairy-backed Animalcules. 405 Sp. 12. T. annulosa (Gosse). (Pl. i. Figs. 17—19.) This species and genus I defined in the Annals of Nat. Hist. for Sept. 1851, collocating it with the Notommate and Furcularie, but indicating its relations with Cheetonotus. It occurred to my researches in a pool near Leamington, in July, 1850. Its length is about 1-110th of an inch, The form is very larva-like; the body is sub-cylindrical or fusiform, terminating in a bifid foot ; it consists of many rings or segments, which are set within the clear cylindrical integument, and are themselves of a sub-square form, with projecting angles. Thus a transverse segment would present the appearance of Fig. 19 ;—a structure not easily ex- plained. I could see no appearance of vortices, nor even the vibration of cilia ; yet the form of the mastax is Rotiferous, and appears closely to resemble that of Furcularia gracilis and of the Monoceree, consisting of an incus, with a long fulcrum and a pair of long incurved mallei. The animal can bring the tips of the jaws to the front, and nibbles extraneous matters with them like the Notommate, etc. A long, wide, straight, cylindrical alimentary canal, without any accessary glands or constriction, leads from the mastax to the cloaca just above the forked foot. It was in this specimen nearly empty, slightly tinged with yel- low. All the rest of the animal was colourless. No eggs or ovary were visible. At the occiput, behind the mastax, was an opake mass, which was white by reflected light, but showed no redness or appearance of eye, by either reflected or transmitted light. Like the cerebral ganglionin many Notommate, it lay at the bottom of a wide deep sac (Fig. 18). The animal contracts strongly and continually like Notommata; but the sphere of the contraction is the space occupied by the alimentary canal, the parts outside the boundary lines of this remaining still, while the parts within retract forcibly, and both ways, but chiefly from behind forwards. In its movements it resembles Cheto- notus, crawling sluggishly about the glass and the particles of sediment, I never saw it attempt to swim. The number of genera has thus been increased, since Dr. Schulze wrote his summary of the family, from four to six, and of species from seven to twelve. With these augmented mate- rials it seems to me that the judgment expressed by him as to their affinities must be somewhat modified, and I have no hesi- tation in recurring to the original decision of Ehrenberg, and in placing the Chetonotide among the Rorirera. ‘Tortuous canals and a contractile vesicle I have seen in O. larus, C. Slackie, and Das. antenniger: pancreatic (?) glands in C. Slackice ; ciliary vortices are made by D. goniathria and D. an- tenniger, not to be distinguished from those made by many Rorirera, as Furcularia, Notommata, etc. The egg-develop- 406 History of the Hairy-backed Animaleules. ment, the great size of the egg, and its chitinous shell, are decidedly Rotiferous.* A great cerebral ganglion, exactly cor- responding to that of Notommata aurita, N. tripus, and others, is found in Taphrocampa, and indistinctly in D. antenniger. The mastax, so eminently characteristic of Rorirmra, is fully developed in Taphrocampa, where, however, the form and extent of the alimentary canal are as in Ohetonotus. The furcate posterior extremity is not a tail but a foot, as in Rort- FERA, the cloaca opening on its dorsal side; it is not indeed separately moveable even in Taphrocampa, yet its homology with the foot of Notommata cannot be overlooked ; it is want- ing in T'urbanella, Hchinodera, and Dasydytes; so it is m those true Rorirera,